Interactionism and Labelling theory:

Question 1

Crime/Deviance is socially constructed:

How is crime/deviance socially constructed? (use sociologist)

Answer 1

Becker argues that a deviant is someone to whom the label (deviant) has been successfully applied, and deviant behaviour is simply behaviour that people so label.

What makes something deviant is not what is done, but how people react to what is done. The only thing that deviant acts have in common is that they are labelled ‘deviant’ by others.

Question 2

Key word:

What are moral entrepreneur’s?

Answer 2

Moral entrepreneurs are individuals or groups who work to create or enforce laws and social norms by defining certain behaviours as immoral or unacceptable.

They push for changes in the law based on their moral beliefs, often aiming to regulate or criminalize behaviours they see as harmful or deviant.

Question 3

Crime/Deviance is socially constructed:

What effects do the laws that moral entrepreneur’s make have? (use sociologist) e.g. marginalising some groups

Answer 3

Becker argues that the laws that moral entrepreneur’s make can lead to the creation of a new group of ‘outsiders’ - outlaws or deviants who break the new rule.

Platt (1969) - Juvenile delinquency was created in the 19th century by upper-class reformers (moral entrepreneur’s) who wanted to protect young people.

This led to separate juvenile courts and the introduction of status offences where behaviours such as truancy were crimes only because of the person’s age, giving the state more control over youth behaviour.

By labelling certain behaviours as delinquent and creating a separate system for young people, society can unintentionally push them into feeling isolated or disconnected from the rest of society as they aren’t see as fitting the status quo which means that they will more likely to commit crime as they’ve already been labelled it (self-fulfilling prophecy).

Question 4

Crime/Deviance is socially constructed:

What effects do the laws that moral entrepreneur’s make have? (use sociologist) e.g. more police, courts (social control agencies)

Answer 4

Becker argues that social control agencies, like the US Federal Bureau of Narcotics, often push for new laws not because a behaviour is harmful, but to increase their own power.

e.g. The Bureau campaigned for the Marijuana Tax Act of 1937, claiming it was to protect young people, but really it was about expanding their influence. - meant that the ruling class gained more power and control over the W/C as it was now made illegal.

Question 5

Crime is socially constructed:

What factors effect whether someone is convicted of a crime? (THERE ARE 3)

Answer 5

Their interactions with agencies of social control (police) e.g. if they have positive reactions with officers they will less likely be convicted.

Their appearance, background and personal biography e.g. people from an ethnic minority and W/C people are more likely to be convicted of a crime compared to white M/C.

The situation and circumstances of the offence e.g. white collar crime is less likely to be punished than blue collar crime ( W- no violence B- violence)

Question 6

Crime is socially constructed:

Who is labelled when it comes to crime? (use sociologist)

Answer 6

Labelling theorists argue that agencies of social control e.g. the police are more likely to label certain groups of people as deviant or criminal.

Piliavin and Briar (1964) - police decisions to arrest a youth were based on appearance and behaviour as well as gender, class, and ethnicity (disproportionately targeted).

This helps to show that crime is socially constructed as crime and deviance is based on subjective aspects rather than objective aspects showing that crime and deviance is not fixed but shaped by society’s norms, biases, and the way people are treated.

Question 7

Key word:

What is the negotiation of justice?

Answer 7

How legal outcomes can be influenced by factors like social status, race, class, gender, and resources, rather than being purely based on the facts or fairness.

It highlights that people may receive different treatment in the justice system depending on who they are and their circumstances meaning justice is not always equal or impartial.

Question 8

Crime is socially constructed:

How can justice be negotiated (use sociologist)

Answer 8

Officers’ decisions to arrest are influenced by their stereotypes about offenders.

Cicourel (1968) - police officers often used stereotypes about what a “typical delinquent” looked like. - made them more focused on certain types of people and more likely to target them as they matched that description which in turn led to more arrests in that area which confirmed the officers beliefs (becomes cycle of bias) - produces a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Cicourel argues that justice is negotiable, not fixed. M/C young person was less likely to be arrested compared to a W/C young person as the background didn’t match the stereotype. This meant that M/C young people were warned and released compared to W/C young people who were prosecuted.

Question 9

Crime is socially constructed:

How can official crime statistics not be trusted? (use sociologist)

Answer 9

Cicourel’s argues that the statistics that are used for crime and deviance aren’t as accurate as they don’t give a valid picture of the patterns of crime.

e.g. white collar crime is less reported than blue collar crimes so it doesn’t give an accurate picture of what the crime rates are - gives an advantage to the ruling class as more restrictions are put on the W/C.

Question 10

Crime is socially constructed:

What is the dark figure of crime and how does it show that crime is socially constructed?

Answer 10

The dark figure of crime is the gap between official crime statistics and the actual level of crime, which is unknown because some crimes go undetected and unreported e.g. white collar crime often goes undetected/reported showing that there is a M/C bias (the justice system favours them)

Interactionists argue that official crime statistics are socially constructed and reflect the decisions made by police and prosecutors based on their stereotypes or labels of suspects, rather than the actual amount of crime.

Question 11

Crime is socially constructed:

What are alternative statistics and how does this show that crime is socially constructed?

Answer 11

Some sociologists use victim surveys (asking people about crimes they’ve experienced) or self-report studies (asking people about crimes they’ve committed) to get a more accurate picture of crime. However, these methods also have limitations.

e.g. People forget, conceal, or exaggerate when answering questions about crimes they’ve committed or experienced. As well as this, victim and self-report surveys focus on less serious offences, which limits their accuracy.

Question 12

The effects of labelling:

What is primary deviance? (use sociologist)

Answer 12

Lemert (1951) argues that primary deviance is when minor deviant acts that aren’t publicly labelled, like fare dodging (not paying to go on the bus).

These acts are common and go unnoticed. As a result, primary deviance has little impact on how a person views themselves or social status.

Question 13

Effects of labelling:

What is secondary deviance? (use sociologist)

Answer 13

Lemert (1951) argues that secondary deviance is when deviant acts happen after a person has been publicly labelled as a deviant. Secondary deviance is the result of the societal reaction to primary deviance. If society reacts positively so will the individual and vice versa.

Once a person is labelled as deviant (by society or the criminal justice system), they may start to internalise this label and adopt a deviant identity (creates a self-fulfilling prophecy as because they feel excluded they find it harder to conform to social norms and in turn carry on committing deviant behaviour and this creates a cycle).

Question 14

The effects of labelling:

What is the master status? (use sociologist)

Answer 14

Becker (1963) - a label or identity that becomes the most important characteristic of an individual, overriding all others.

When someone is labelled as deviant (e.g. “criminal” or “addict”), this label often shapes how others perceive them and can impact their life and opportunities.

This can lead to a crisis in the person’s self-identity, which may be resolved by accepting the label, resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy which can lead to secondary deviance, where the individual acts in line with the deviant label and engages in further deviant behaviour.

Question 15

Effects of labelling:

What is a deviant career? (use sociologist)

Answer 15

A deviant career is when an individual becomes more involved in deviant behaviour over time, often due to societal reactions and labels. In secondary deviance, societal hostility and labelling push individuals deeper into deviance.

Young’s study of hippy marijuana users, drug use was initially minor (primary deviance), but police labelling and persecution made them see themselves as outsiders, forming a deviant subculture.

This reinforced their deviant behaviour, turning drug use into a central part of their lifestyle and leading to a deviant career.

Question 16

The effects of labelling:

What is the deviance amplication spiral? (use sociologist)

Answer 16

The deviance amplification spiral is a process where efforts to control deviance actually lead to an increase in deviant behaviour.

As societal reactions grow stronger, such as media exaggeration and police crackdowns, it causes more deviance and further attempts to control it, creating a cycle.

Cohen’s study of the mods and rockers highlights this, where media hysteria and police actions led to more public concern, harsher penalties, and increased deviance among the youth as it shows how societal reactions to deviance can lead to more deviant behaviour - labelled deviant causes more crime as the label is embraced which escalates the behaviour.

Question 17

Key word:

What are folk devils?

Answer 17

They are groups or individuals labelled by society through the media as a threat to societal norms often fuelling moral panic and public fear.

Question 18

Key word:

What is a moral panic?

Answer 18

A widespread exaggerated fear or concern about a perceived threat to societal values, often fuelled by the media leading to overreaction and social anxiety.

e.g. Video games influencing children into committing violent acts.

Question 19

Effects of labelling:

How do folk devils and the dark figure link? (use sociologist)

Answer 19

Folk devils are the opposite of the “dark figure of crime.”

Dark figure - crimes that go unnoticed by the public and police whereas folk devils are overly focused on and receive a lot of attention from both the public and authorities.

This focus on folk devils can divert resources away from addressing hidden crimes, like those committed by powerful people (the ruling class)

Question 20

The effects of labelling:

How does labelling affect criminal justice policy? (use sociologist)

Answer 20

Triplett (2000) argues that attempts to control and punish young offenders can backfire, leading to further deviance. When young offenders are labelled as “evil,” they become more likely to commit crimes, as they are less tolerant of minor deviance, which often results in harsher penalties and this cycle continues.

Haan (2000) - argues that the same thing happened in Holland in which the increased stigmatisation of young offenders also caused more people to offend.

Both these cases help to show that negative labels can push individuals into a deviant career. In order for less people to deviate , they argue that there should be less criminalisation of minor offenses. This avoids shaming offenders and means that there are less likely to go into a deviate career as they don’t feel marginalised.

Question 21

Key word:

What does disintegrative shaming mean?

Answer 21

Where the crime and the criminal is labelled as bad and the offender is excluded from society.

Question 22

Key word:

What does reintegrative shaming mean?

Answer 22

Where is crime is labelled as bad but not the person.

e.g. ‘they have done a bad thing but aren’t a bad person’.

Question 23

The effects of labelling:

How does reintegrative shaming affect criminality? (use sociologist)

Answer 23

Braithwaite (1989) - crime rates are lower in societies where reintegrative shaming is the dominant way to deal with offenders compared to those that rely on disintegrative shaming, which labels offenders and isolates them from the community.

Reintegrative shaming helps offenders recognize the harm they’ve caused without labelling them as “evil.”

It promotes community forgiveness, allowing the offender to be separated from their offense and reintegrated into society, thus preventing secondary deviance and therefore meaning that less people will commit crimes.

Question 24

Mental illness and suicide and how it effects crime and deviance:

What are interactionists views on using official statistics when it comes to suicide? (brief)

Answer 24

Interactionists argue that to understand suicide, people must study its meaning for those who choose to kill themselves.

Prefer qualitative methods over quantitative as it is more personal and gives more insight whereas quantitative methods use assumptions.

Question 25

Mental illness and suicide and how it effects crime and deviance:

How does suicide affect criminality? (use sociologist)

Answer 25

Douglas (1967) argues that suicide statistics are socially constructed and influenced by the people who create them, like coroners and police.

These labels do not reflect the true meaning of suicide and can label it as being negative rather than solving the cause of why people commit suicide and therefore cause more suicides as people feel marginalised.

However by using qualitative methods such as reading suicide notes or talking to survivors it can help solve the root cause and not alienate anyone.

Question 26

Mental illness and suicide and how it effects crime and deviance:

How does coroner’s common sense knowledge help to show that official statistics shouldn’t be used to show that when linking suicide to deviance? (use sociologist)

Answer 26

Atkinson (1978) - official suicide statistics reflect the labels coroners assign to deaths, not the true meanings behind them.

He argues that coroners make assumptions when they reach their verdict of whether a person has committed suicide or not.

They used phrases such as a ‘typical suicide’ and they committed suicide because of a recent bereavement’.

This helps to show that qualitative data should be used as it is more personalised and can get to the root of the problem in society without people feeling marginalised and causing further deviance (suicide)

Question 27

Mental illness and suicide and how it effects crime and deviance:

How do interactionists view mental illness (brief)

Answer 27

Interactionists argue that official statistics on mental illness are social constructs as they simply a record of the activities of those such as psychiatrists with the power to attach labels

e.g. ‘schizophrenic’ or ‘paranoid’ to others rather than actually tackling the problems of why people commit suicide

Question 28

Mental illness and suicide and how it effects crime and deviance:

How does paranoia link to the self fulfilling prophecy? (use sociologist)

Answer 28

Lemert argues that primary deviance (acting differently) leads to labelling, causing isolation and reinforcing negative behaviour (secondary deviance). This can result in being treated as “mentally ill” and pushed into psychiatric care which makes them feel more isolated and because they’ve already been labelled as deviant they continue to commit deviant crimes.

Rosenhan’s 1973 study showed that when researchers were labelled as mentally ill, hospital staff treated them as such, even though they acted normally. This highlights the powerful impact of labelling on how people are treated (it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy).

Question 29

Mental illness and suicide and how it effects crime and deviance:

How does institutionalisation (being in a mental health hospital) can affect crime? (use sociologist)

Answer 29

Goffman’s Asylums (1961) shows how being admitted to a psychiatric hospital changes a person’s identity, as they lose their old self and are labelled as ‘inmates.’ Some adjust to this new role, while others resist or cope in different ways.

Braginski et al. (1969) found that some inmates pretended to be just sick enough to stay in the hospital but not too sick to have more freedom.

Institutionalisation can lead to stigma from being labelled as mentally ill or an inmate, which affects how society views individuals. This stigma can limit job opportunities and social integration, increasing social exclusion and, in some cases, pushing individuals toward criminal behaviour as a way to cope.

Question 30

Evaluation of labelling theory:

What are the criticisms of the labelling theory? (use sociologist)

Answer 30

Durkheim would argue that labelling can have a positive side, as it reinforces boundary maintenance by clarifying societal norms. When deviance happens, society reacts to reaffirm acceptable behaviour, strengthen social solidarity, and sometimes drive social change, helping maintain order and unity.

Right realists argue that labelling theory focuses too much on how society reacts to crime, rather than on the offender’s personal responsibility. They believe this allows offenders to avoid accountability by blaming their actions on societal reactions, rather than acknowledging that crime is often a result of individual choices.

Right realists argue that labelling theory can encourage crime by giving offenders an excuse for their actions. Once labelled as a criminal, individuals may adopt that identity and continue offending. Murray (1990) suggests that focusing on social causes and labelling offenders as victims prevents society from taking stronger action to prevent crime and deal with offenders effectively.