Information processing and cognitive theories of learning

Question 1

Learners understand better if they are taught to ask themselves ?? as they read.

Answer 1

Learners understand better if they are taught to ask themselves WH-questions (e.g. who, what, when, where, how, why) as they read. (p.169)

Question 2

Study strategies:
1. ??:
Tests that requires students to ?? are better than ?? or ???? tests.
- Ss working in a ?? in which members create practice tests for one another can be helpful.

Answer 2

Study strategies:

1. practice tests: Tests that requires students to construct responses are better than multiple choice or fill-in-the-blank tests.
   - Ss working in a study group in which members create practice tests for one another can be helpful.

Question 3

Study strategies:
2. ??:
- note taking that requires mental processing is more effective than simply noting down what was said/read.
=> e.g. ? when taking notes, or taking notes as if we will ? sb else.
- providing ? notes before the class can be beneficial.

Answer 3

Study strategies:
2. Note taking:
- note taking that requires mental processing is more effective than simply noting down what was said/read.
=> e.g. paraphrase when taking notes, or taking notes as if we will teach sb.
- providing partial notes before the class can be beneficial.

Question 4

Study strategies:

3. ? :
   - studies found no effect
   - but could try having ss write one-sentence summaries after each paragraph they read.

Answer 4

Study strategies:

3. summarising:
   - studies found no effect
   - but could try having ss write one-sentence summaries after each paragraph they read.

Question 5

Study strategies:

4. ?/?:
   - should think carefully and only ? what is the most ?.

Answer 5

Study strategies:

4. Underlining/highlighting:
   - should think carefully and only underline what is the most important.

Question 6

Study strategies:

5. ? to ?:
   - Ss write down their own explanations of what they are learning => beneficial

Answer 6

Study strategies:

5. Writing to learn:
   - Ss write down their own explanations of what they are learning => beneficial

Question 7

Study strategies:

6. ? and ? mapping:
   e. g. hierarchical diagrams
   - no significant effect found but can use as study aids

Answer 7

Study strategies:

6. Outlining and Concept mapping:
   e. g. hierarchical diagrams
   - no significant effect found but can use as study aids

Question 8

Study strategies:
7. **The PQ4R Method:
Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite and Review.
- well-known

Answer 8

Study strategies:
7. **The PQ4R Method:
Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite and Review.
- well-known

Question 9

Using ‘??’ can be helpful especially if teacher knows students have a good existing knowledge about a topic.
e.g. of an A.O: KWL chart: What we ?/ What we ? to find out/ what we ?.

• Similarly, having Ss discuss what they already know or make ? about a topic before learning it can help activate Ss’ schemata.

Answer 9

Using ‘Advance organisers’ can be helpful especially if teacher knows students have a good existing knowledge about a topic.
e.g. of an A.O: KWL chart: What we Know / What we Want to find out/ what we Learned.

• Similarly, having Ss discuss what they already know or make predictions about a topic before learning it can help activate Ss’ schemata.

Question 10

? (comparisons and parallels): helpful.

_work best when Ss are familiar with them and can understand them well. => _ don’t need to relate directly to the concepts being taught.

Answer 10

Analogies (comparisons and parallels): helpful.

• Analogies work best when Ss are familiar with them and can understand them well. => Analogies don’t need to relate directly to the concepts being taught.

Question 11

Elaboration:

? info easier to understand and remember.
e.g. the phrase “A gray-haired man carried a bottle of hair die” is easier to remember than “A gray-haired man carried a bottle”.

=> Ask Ss to think of ? between ideas or ? new concepts to their own lives.

Answer 11

Elaboration:

Elaborated info easier to understand and remember.
e.g. the phrase “A gray-haired man carried a bottle of hair die” is easier to remember than “A gray-haired man carried a bottle”.

=> Ask Ss to think of connections between ideas or relate new concepts to their own lives.

Question 12

Ask myself: What do I expect my ss to know and be able to do at the end of this lesson? How does this contribute to course objectives and to ss’ needs to become capable individuals?

? information is remembered best.
e.g. when teaching parts of speech, having Ss make up their own sentences using adj and adv rather than merely identify the adj and adv.

Answer 12

Ask myself: What do I expect my ss to know and be able to do at the end of this lesson? How does this contribute to course objectives and to ss’ needs to become capable individuals?

Meaningful information is remembered best.
e.g. when teaching parts of speech, having Ss make up their own sentences using adj and adv rather than merely identify the adj and adv.

Question 13

‘What knowledge/skills/needs/interests do my ss have that must be taken into account in my lesson?’

The ? Ss already know about a subject, the ? they can understand and remember new information. => Find out what students already know/feel about sth before teaching it.

Answer 13

‘What knowledge/skills/needs/interests do my ss have that must be taken into account in my lesson?’

The more Ss already know about a subject, the better they can understand and remember new information. => Find out what students already know/feel about sth before teaching it.

Question 14

‘What do I know about the content, child development, learning, motivation and effective teaching strategies that I can use to accomplish my objectives?’

To make info meaningful and memorable, engage ss in using the new info to ? sth.

e.g. use new vocab to make up their own sentences and dialogues.

Answer 14

‘What do I know about the content, child development, learning, motivation and effective teaching strategies that I can use to accomplish my objectives?’

To make info meaningful and memorable, engage ss in using the new info to produce/create sth.

e.g. use new vocab to make up their own sentences and dialogues.

Question 15

‘What instructional materials/ technology/ assistance/ and other resources are available to help accomplish my objectives?’

? theory says that new info is added to existing ‘?’, i.e. networks of connected ideas.
Info belongs to a well-established schemata is understood and remembered better than info that belongs to less established schemata or rote learning that does not belong to any existing schemata.

Answer 15

‘What instructional materials/ technology/ assistance/ and other resources are available to help accomplish my objectives?’

Schema theory says that new info is added to existing ‘schemata’, i.e. networks of connected ideas.
Info belongs to a well-established schemata is understood and remembered better than info that belongs to less established schemata or rote learning that does not belong to any existing schemata.

Question 16

‘How will I plan to assess ss’ progress toward my objectives?’
e.g. in language class, T can assess ss’ ability to recall vocab, describe rules and structures and communicate.

Answer 16

‘How will I plan to assess ss’ progress toward my objectives?’
e.g. in language class, T can assess ss’ ability to recall vocab, describe rules and structures and communicate.

Question 17

‘How will I respond if individual children or the class as a whole are not on track toward success? What is my back-up plan?’

Check to see if ss use self-questioning strategies and ‘metacognition’ (i.e., knowledge about one’s own learning or how to learn) to assess their progress.

Answer 17

‘How will I respond if individual children or the class as a whole are not on track toward success? What is my back-up plan?’

Check to see if ss use self-questioning strategies and ‘metacognition’ (i.e., knowledge about one’s own learning or how to learn) to assess their progress.

Question 18

3 main components of memory:

• ??: linked to senses (eyes, ears…). Info received by senses but not attended to will be quickly forgotten.
• short-term = ? memory: can hold (how many?) bits of info at one time. ? is repeating info to hold it in short-term memory.
• long-term memory: a large amount of info stored (how long?) here. Need to help ss relate new info with existing info in long-term memory.

Answer 18

3 main components of memory:

• sensory register: linked to senses (eyes, ears…). Info received by senses but not attended to will be quickly forgotten.
• short-term = working memory: can hold 5-9 bits of info at one time. Rehearsal is repeating info to hold it in short-term memory.
• long-term memory: a large amount of info stored forever here. Need to help ss relate new info with existing info in long-term memory.

Question 19

??? theory: learners are better at remembering information that they need to ? (analyse, manipulate, critique, look at from different perspectives, ..)

Answer 19

Levels-of-processing theory: learners are better at remembering information that they need to process (analyse, manipulate, critique, look at from different perspectives, ..)

Question 20

?? Theory:

it’s important to use both visual and verbal means to learn info.

Answer 20

Dual Code Theory:

it’s important to use both visual and verbal means to learn info.

Question 21

The more people practise, the more ? and expertise they gain, and the more efficient their brains function.

Answer 21

The more people practise, the more automaticity and expertise they gain, and the more efficient their brains function.

Question 22

? Theory: ppl forget when info get mixed up with or pushed aside by other info:
- ? info affects ? info:
» Retroactive inhibition
» Retroactive facilitation

• ? info affects ? info:
  » Proactive inhibition
  » Proactive facilitation

Answer 22

Interference Theory: ppl forget when info get mixed up with or pushed aside by other info:
- New info affects older info:
» Retroactive inhibition
» Retroactive facilitation

• Older info affects new info:
  » Proactive inhibition
  » Proactive facilitation

Question 23

? and ? Effect:
Ppl best remember info that is given ? and ? in a series.

=> Teachers should plan the beginning and end of a lesson well.

Answer 23

Primacy and Recency Effect:
Ppl best remember info that is given FIRST and LAST in a series.

=> Teachers should plan the beginning and end of a lesson well.

Question 24

? is achieved when ppl practise skills and info much more than the amount of time required to establish info in long-term memory.

Answer 24

Automaticity is achieved when ppl practise skills and info much more than the amount of time required to establish info in long-term memory.

Question 25

? practice ( practise a little bit regularly over a period of time) ) (e.g. homework) is much better for establishing info in long-term memory than ? practice (practise all in one go) (e.g. pulling an all-nighter).

Answer 25

Distributed practice ( practise a little bit regularly over a period of time) is much better for establishing info in long-term memory than mass practice (practise all in one go).

Question 26

Enactment, i.e., learning by ?, is effective.

Answer 26

Enactment, i.e., learning by doing, is effective.

Question 27

3 types of verbal learning:

• paired-associate learning
• serial
• free-recall

Answer 27

3 types of verbal learning:

• paired-associate learning
• serial : list things in an order
• free-recall

Question 28

Teach vocab by using vivid and ? images and mnemonics (e.g. keywords, sounds,…). The stranger the better.

Answer 28

Teach vocab by using vivid and STRANGE images and mnemonics (e.g. keywords, sounds,…). The stranger the better.

Question 29

Some helpful memory strategies for serial and free-recall learning:

• ? Method: associate items/ images with a list of locations.
• Pegword:
• Initial-letter:
  e. g. order of planets: “My very educated mother just served us nachos”: ???????

Answer 29

Some helpful memory strategies for serial and free-recall learning:

• Loci Method: associate items/ images with a list of locations.
• Pegword:
• Initial-letter:
  e. g. order of planets: “My very educated mother just served us nachos”: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

Question 30

What makes info meaningful?

Answer 30

Ppl remember MEANINGFUL info (info that makes sense/ is relatable to them/ related to their existing knowledge) better.

Question 31

Study strategies:

• note taking
• selective underlining
• mapping and outlining
• summarising
• writing to learn
• what is PQ4R method?

Answer 31

Study strategies:

• note taking
• selective underlining
• mapping and outlining
• summarising
• writing to learn
• PQ4R method: Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, Review.