Influence of individual differences on independent behaviour

Question 1

What are individual differences?

Answer 1

> Individual differences are personal (dispositional) factors such as personality, gender or culture that could differentiate how people respond to social influence situations
- Influenced by personality/gender/culture
Shows an alternative to situational factors when judging why people won’t obey – i.e. people in the same situation may obey and some may not

Question 2

Who investigated the influence of individual differences in the form of a meta-analysis?

Answer 2

Blass (1991) influence of individual differences on individual behaviour - a meta-analysis of experiments, many of which used Milgram’s technique: Paradigm.

Question 3

What 5 individual differences can result in independent behaviour?

Answer 3

Moral reasoning

Locus of control

Confidence

Gender differences

Cultural differences

Question 4

Explain Moral Reasoning

as an influence of individual differences on independent behaviour

Answer 4

Kohlberg (1969) studied process of cognitive development

> Those who used more advanced stages of moral reasoning were more able to resist the exhortations of the experimenter and consequently showed higher levels of disobedience (independent behaviour)

          - Evidence for this = Milgram’s study: 35% did not obey – moral reasoning

> However, other research has shown that there is not an exact correspondence between moral reasoning and moral actions – the power of the situation may overwhelm the moral reasoning.

Question 5

Explain Locus of control

as an influence of individual differences on independent behaviour

Answer 5

(Rotter 1966) Refers to the individual differences people possess about what people’s expectations and beliefs about what controls events in their lives
Two extremes of this:

1. Internal locus - Strong internal locus of control = associated with the belief that one can control one’s own life. Therefore, they are more likely to disobey because of high demand for control.

a. High internals are active seekers of useful information so rely less on opinions of others
i. more achievement-oriented and so more likely to become leaders
ii. Better able to resist coercion from others

2. External locus – the belief that what happens to them is controlled by external factors and agents. Luck and fate are important factors. Tend to face stressful situations with a more passive and fatalistic attitude, therefore are more likely to obey.

Question 6

Explain Confidence

as an influence of individual differences on independent behaviour

Answer 6

> Another factor that helps to explain differences in resistance to conformity pressures is the level of confidence that people bring to the situation
Perrin and Spencer’s (1980) study – participants were drawn from engineering, mathematical and science courses so would have more confidence in rejecting the erroneous judgments of the accomplices
However, in Asch’s original study (1951) discovered that some participants who lacked confidence nevertheless resisted pressures to conform. He closely observed the 26% who showed independent behaviour by refusing to conform and distinguished 3 main categories of independent behaviour:

1. Independence based on participants’ confidence that their perceptions were correct
2. Independence is accompanied by withdrawal, where participants felt the need to isolate themselves from the others by avoiding eye contact in order to deliver independent judgements
3. Independence accompanied by tension and doubt, where the participants’ behaviour revealed the discomfort they were experiencing

Question 7

Explain Gender differences

as an influence of individual differences on independent behaviour

Answer 7

> Milgram reported no differences between men and women’s levels of obedience to authority. Milgram’s original participants were mostly male but he did do the study again with 40 women and found identically 65% of women were fully obedient

> Blass (1991) reviewed 9 methodological replications of Milgram’s study and 8/9 showed no gender difference

Question 8

Explain Cultural differences

as an influence of individual differences on independent behaviour

Answer 8

Culture –
Smith and Bond’s (1998)
review of 32 conformity studies concluded from more individualistic cultures were more likely to show independent behaviour

Time –
Two correlational analyses by Blass (2000) of obedience outcomes (using Milgram’s paradigm) and year of publication (from 1963-1985) found no relationship between when a study was conducted and how much obedience occurred

Question 9

Research into Locus of control

Answer 9

> Holland (1967) 
• Found no relationship between Rotter’s internal/external Locus of Control Scale and Levels of obedience

> Blass (1991) 
• However, Blass reanalysed data from Holland’s study using more sophisticated statistical techniques now available
- He found that those with an internal locus of control were more resistant to pressures to obey

> Schurz (1985) 
• Used a procedure modelled on Milgram’s study
- applying ultrasound stimulation over a 20 step continuum that could cause brain damage:
o 80% of participants pressed all 20 switches (out of 56 participants)
o Locus of controlled measures were not predictive of obedience
o However, the 20% of participants who were independent (disobeyed) took more responsibility for their actions than those who obeyed

> Blass (1991) concludes that research findings in this are unclear