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PSY361 > Infancy and Toddlerhood (Ch 5-7) > Flashcards

Infancy and Toddlerhood (Ch 5-7) Flashcards

1
Q

Suzie has been acting angrily for the past few months . What part of the brain could have been damaged to result in this behavior?

A

amygdala

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2
Q

Lucas can’t seem to remember much lately. Which part of the brain could have been damaged to result in this?

A

hippocampus

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3
Q

What are the cells that make up the nervous system of the body called?

A

neurons

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4
Q

What is plasticity?

A

the ability of an immature brain to change in form and function

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5
Q

At what point of a person’s life would plasticity most likely occur?

A

infancy

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6
Q

What is the development that occurs when we encounter common human experiences such as seeing light?

A

experience-expectant brain development

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7
Q

What is the brain development that occurs in an individual in response to specific learning experiences?

A

experience-dependent brain development

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8
Q

What is myelination?

A

the process of laying down a fatty sheath of myelin on the neurons

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9
Q

What are mirror neurons?

A

Neurons that fire both when an individual acts and when the individual observes the same action performed by another

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10
Q

What is cerebral palsy?

A

condition that appears early development and primarily involves issues with body movement and muscle coordination

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11
Q

What are the roles of neurons and synapses?

A

to send signals throughout the body to the brain or the spinal cord

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12
Q

What happens in the brain in the process of pruning?

A

many neural connections that aren’t being used will be removed from the brain to promote more efficiency and strengthen more connections

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13
Q

What roles does myelination play in brain development?

A

myelination improves the speed in which information is delivered and processed

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14
Q

What differences have been found between the brain of a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and a child who does not have ASD?

A

Children with ASD have an enlargement of the amygdala, which makes it more difficult for that person to have social relationships. Along with a larger brain volume for children with ASD, resulting in problems with social interaction or repetitive behaviors.

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15
Q

Why do you think an infant’s brain makes such a huge number of synaptic connections only to then prune many away?

A

This is to enhance and strengthen the connections of the synaptic connections that are used more.

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16
Q

What is sensation?

A

the information from the environment that is picked up by our sense organs

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17
Q

What is perception?

A

the process of interpreting and attaching meaning to sensory information

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18
Q

What is visual acuity?

A

the ability to see things in sharp detail

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19
Q

Do newborns or young infants have good visual acuity?

A

No, when children are first born, they are not able to see very far.

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20
Q

How can early hearing loss be detrimental to hearing development of language?

A

it can lead to difficulties with psychosocial development and later academic achievement

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21
Q

When is the most critical time to intervene with early hearing loss?

A

Before the age of 6 months

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22
Q

When are infants able to recognize their own name?

A

6 months

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23
Q

What is cross-modal transfer of perception?

A

Perception with one sense, such as vision, enables recognition of that object with another sense, such as touch

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24
Q

What are gross motor skills?

A

Skills that involve large muscle groups of the body (ex: the legs and arms) – boys usually develop in this area quicker than girls

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25
Q

What are fine motor skills?

A

Skills that involve small movements, mostly of the hands and fingers, but also of the lips and tongue (ex: speaking)

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26
Q

What is Babinski reflex?

A

when the sole of the newborn’s foot is stroked from the toes to the heel – baby’s toes fan out

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27
Q

What is proximodistal?

A

the development that proceeds from the central axis of the body toward the extremities

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28
Q

What is cephalocaudal direction of motion development?

A

When babies gain control of their bodies from the head down

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29
Q

How many steps do infants typically make in a day when they first begin to walk?

A

9,000 steps

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30
Q

What is colostrum?

A

Thick, yellowish substance when first breastfeeding

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31
Q

What is protein-energy malnutrition?

A

A term used to describe a group of related disorders that include marasmus and kwashiorkor

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32
Q

What is marasmus?

A

A disorder more likely to occur in babies and young children, who eat reasonable amount of calories but inadequate protein

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33
Q

What is kwashiorkor?

A

A disorder most likely to occur among older children, who suffer from severe protein deficiency which leads to the body retaining too much fluid – becomes a swollen appearance and inability to grow or gain weight

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34
Q

How much do newborns typically sleep in a day?

A

80% of their day

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35
Q

How much do toddlers typically sleep in a night?

A

Half of their day

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36
Q

How much do infants at 6 months typically sleep in a day?

A

12 hours or more

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37
Q

What is infant mortality?

A

Infant death within the first year of life

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38
Q

What are the symptoms of shaken baby syndrome?

A

convulsions (seizures), decreased alertness, extreme irritability in behaviors, sleepiness, unconsciousness, loss of vision, no breathing, pale or bluish skin, poor feeding/lack of appetite, vomiting

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39
Q

What is cortisol?

A

A hormone produced as part of the stress response that prepares the body to deal with threat and also shuts down nonessential functions; prepares body to deal with threats in the environment by increasing blood pressure and heart rate

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40
Q

If a young child drops an object from her high chair over and over again, she is probably just asserting herself and testing her parents’ patience. True or false?

A

False

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41
Q

Infants appear to have an innate understanding of how gravity works. True or false?

A

True

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42
Q

When an adult sticks her tongue out at a newborn infant, the infant will likely imitate her. True or false?

A

False

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43
Q

Few people have clear memories of what happened in their lives before the age of 3. True or false?

A

True

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44
Q

Being attracted to new things as an infant is associated with intelligence in later childhood. True or false?

A

True

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45
Q

Children must develop language by a certain age or they will never be able to speak. True or false?

A

False

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46
Q

Infants are born with a preference for listening to their native language. True or false?

A

True

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47
Q

Teaching babies to use sign language will delay development of spoken language. True or false?

A

False

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48
Q

It is perfectly fine to use baby talk with infants. True or false?

A

True

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49
Q

Babies who watch videos designed to improve cognitive development have larger vocabularies than babies who don’t watch these videos. True or false?

A

False

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50
Q

What is schema?

A

A cognitive framework that places concepts, objects, or experiences into categories or groups of associations (ex: dog)

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51
Q

What is disequilibrium?

A

A state of confusion in which your mental schemas do not fit your experiences (ex: child who is served unfamiliar food may not recognize that it is food)

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52
Q

What is the sensorimotor stage?

A

The first stage in which infants learn through their senses and their actions on their environment

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53
Q

What are the general trends of the sensorimotor stage?

A

Development of reflexes, development of object permanence, and development from motor action to mental representation

54
Q

What is the circular reaction?

A

An infant’s repetition of a reflexive action that results in a pleasurable experience (ex: sucking it’s thumb)

55
Q

What is motor schema?

A

Infants’ understanding of the world through their action on it (ex: seeing if an object is suckable by putting it in it’s mouth)

56
Q

What is object permanence?

A

The understanding that objects continue to exist when no one is interacting with them

57
Q

What is the A-not-B error?

A

Results from a still unclear understanding of an object as separate from their experience of that object, they continue to search there even when the object was moved

58
Q

What is assimilation?

A

take the new experiences that we have into an existing schema

59
Q

What is accomodation?

A

Changing the way we think about something to understand the new information (ex: correcting a child when they think a cat is a dog)

60
Q

What is the theory of core knowledge?

A

The theory that basic areas of knowledge are innate and build into the human brain

61
Q

What is a violation of expectation?

A

Research based on the finding that babies look longer at unexpected or surprising events

62
Q

What is selective attention?

A

Tuning in to certain things while tuning out others – develops later in the first year of birth

63
Q

What is sustained or focused attention?

A

Maintaining focus over time – can be seen in infants when looking at the amount of time the infant plays with a toy

64
Q

What is habituation?

A

Reduction in the response to a stimulus that is repeated (ex: walk in a room that has loud AC, but you won’t hear it after a while)

65
Q

What is deferred imitation?

A

the ability to remember something and re-enact it at a later time

66
Q

What is infantile amnesia?

A

Adults’ inability to remember experiences that happened to them before they were about 3 years of age

67
Q

What is executive function?

A

the ability of the brain to coordinate attention and memory and control behavioral responses for the purpose of attaining a certain goal

68
Q

What is inhibitory control?

A

the ability to stop more automatic cognitive responses to do what is needed to carry out a task correctly

69
Q

What is working memory?

A

the memory system that stores information for a brief period to allow the mind to process it to use in mental tasks and to move into long-term storage

70
Q

What is cognitive flexibility?

A

the ability to switch focus as needed to complete a task – limited in infants and toddlers

71
Q

What is social cognition?

A

the ways we use cognitive processes to understand our social world – infants 8-12 months appear to understand people’s intentions or desires rather than just their actions

72
Q

What are the four basic aspects of cognition?

A

Attention, memory, executive function, and social cognition

73
Q

What is intellectual disability?

A

A type of intellectual impairment that begins early in life and includes deficits in intellectual, social, and adaptive functioning

74
Q

What is phonology?

A

the study of the sounds of a language

75
Q

What is syntax?

A

the grammar of a language (ex: play becomes played in past tense)

76
Q

What is semantics?

A

the study of the meanings of words

77
Q

What is pragmatics?

A

the rules that guide the way we use language in social situations

78
Q

What is nativism?

A

a theory that human brains are innately wired to learn language and that hearing spoken language triggers the activation of a universal grammar

79
Q

what is a language acquisition device?

A

an innate capacity in the human brain for learning language

80
Q

What is universal grammar?

A

a hypothetical set of grammatical rules and constraints, thought to underlie all languages and to be hardwired in the human brain

81
Q

What is overregularization?

A

a type of grammatical error in which children apply a general language rule to words that don’t follow the rule or pattern (ex: foot can’t be foots in plural)

82
Q

What is interactionism?

A

a theory of language development that proposes the child’s biological readiness to learn language interacts with the child’s experiences with language in the environment to bring about language development

83
Q

What is recast?

A

repeating what children say but in a more advanced grammar to facilitate language learning

84
Q

What is cognitive processing theory?

A

the theory that learning language is a process of data crunch, in which the actual process of learning words and their meanings relies on the computational ability of the human brain

85
Q

What is transitional probability?

A

the likelihood that one particular sound will follow another one to form a word

86
Q

What is the Broca’s area?

A

the part of the brain active in the physical production of speech – movement of tongue and lips

87
Q

What is the Wernicke’s area?

A

the part of the brain active in processing the meaning in speech

88
Q

What is receptive language?

A

the ability to understand words and sentences

89
Q

What is expressive language?

A

the written or spoken language we use to convey our thoughts, emotions, or needs

90
Q

When do babies start to coo?

A

between 2 to 4 months

91
Q

When do babies begin to babble?

A

between 6 to 8 months

92
Q

What is joint attention?

A

a process in which an individual looks at the same object that someone else is looking at, but also looks at the person to make sure that they are both involved with the same thing

93
Q

What is child-directed speech?

A

speech tailored to fit the sensory and cognitive capabilities of infants and children so it holds their attention, includes speaking in a higher pitch with exaggerated intonation and a singsong rhythm and using a simplified vocabulary – also known as baby-talk

94
Q

What are holophrases?

A

individual words used by infants that communicate the meaning of a whole phrase

95
Q

What are constraints?

A

assumptions language learners make that limit the alternative meanings they attribute to new words

96
Q

What is whole object bias?

A

an assumption made by language learners that a word describes an entire object rather than just some portion of it (ex: child thinks word giraffe means it is the whole animal)

97
Q

What is mutual exclusivity constraint?

A

an assumption made by language learners that there is one and only one name for an object (ex: child hears novel word, doesn’t know what it is, assumes that it describes this object they don’t know)

98
Q

What is taxonomic constraint?

A

an assumption language learners make that two objects that have features in common can have a name in common, but that each object also can have its own individual name

99
Q

What is syntactic bootstrapping?

A

the use of syntax to learn the meaning of new words

100
Q

What is semantic bootstrapping?

A

the use of word meanings to understand grammatical categories

101
Q

What is fast mapping?

A

a process by which children apply constraints and their knowledge of grammar to learn new words very quickly, often after a single exposure

102
Q

How does poverty affect young infants in development?

A

limitations that come with the lack of resources and the stresses associated with poverty can negatively affect the potential for cognitive development of even young infants

103
Q

What improves vocabulary and understanding to children?

A

Parents reading to their children

104
Q

How do infants learn?

A

young infants learn through classical conditioning and operant conditioning and through imitation

105
Q

What is emotion?

A

the body’s physiological reaction to a situation, the cognitive interpretation of the situation, communication of that reaction to another person, and actions based on that reaction

106
Q

What are basic emotions?

A

an automatic and unlearned set of emotions that arise early in development and have a biological basis (ex: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, interest, and disgust)

107
Q

What are emotional display rules?

A

culturally determined norms for when, how, and to whom emotions should, or should not, be shown (ex: USA children are encouraged to express their inner feelings, Eastern cultures low-arousal emotions such as being calm and relaxed are more acceptable)

108
Q

What are emotion schemas?

A

all the associations and interpretation that an individual connects to a certain emotion

109
Q

What is social referencing?

A

using the reaction of others to determine how to react in ambiguous situations

110
Q

What is empathy?

A

the experience of feeling with another person – requires awareness that the emotion belongs to the other person and not to oneself

111
Q

What is temperament?

A

the general emotional style an individual displays in responding to experiences in the world

112
Q

What is goodness of fit?

A

how well a child’s temperament characteristics match the demands of the child’s environment

113
Q

What is emotion coaching?

A

a parental style that teaches children how to understand their emotions and deal with them

114
Q

What is emotion dismissing?

A

a parental style that teaches children to ignore their feelings

115
Q

What is visual perspective-taking?

A

the understand that other people can see an object from a point of view that is different from one’s own

116
Q

autonomy versus shame and doubt

A

Erikson’s second stage of development in which toddlers assert their autonomy or separation of self from others – autonomy is independence

117
Q

What is attachment?

A

an emotional bond to a particular person

118
Q

What is trust versus mistrust?

A

Erikson’s first stage of development in which infants develop their first relationships with caregivers to test whether the world can be trusted or not

119
Q

What is preattachment?

A

stage of attachment from birth to 6 weeks, infant sensory preferences bring infants into close connection with parents

120
Q

What is attachment in the making?

A

6 weeks to 8 months infants develop stranger anxiety, differentiating those they know from those they don’t

121
Q

What is clear-cut attachment?

A

6 months to 1-2 years when infant develops separation anxiety when a person they are attached to leaves them

122
Q

What is goal-corrected partnership?

A

18 months on, toddlers create reciprocal relationships with their parents

123
Q

What is a secure base for exploration?

A

the use of a parent to provide the security that infants can rely on as they explore the environment

124
Q

What is internal working model?

A

mental representations of particular attachment relationships a child has experience that shape expectation for future relationships

125
Q

What is the strange situation?

A

Mary Ainsworth’s experimental procedure designed to asses security of attachment in infants – described the four types of attachment (secure, anxious avoidant, anxious ambivalent/resistant, and disorganized/disorientated p 230)

126
Q

What is reactive attachment disorder?

A

a disorder marked by an inability to form attachments to caregivers

127
Q

What is disinhibited social engagement disorder?

A

an attachment disorder in which children approach strangers indiscriminately, not differentiating between attachment figures and other people

128
Q

What is a nuclear family?

A

a family consisting of married couple and their biological and adopted children

129
Q

What is an extended family?

A

a family structure that includes nuclear family members and other relatives, such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins

130
Q

What are open adoptions?

A

adoptions in which the children and their biological and adoptive families have access to each other

131
Q

What is foster care?

A

the temporary placement of children in a family that is not their own

132
Q

How do infants and toddlers develop a sense of self?

A

within 2 years, develop the ability to recognize themselves in a mirror and use proper pronouns for themselves as well as becoming more possessive of their toys

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