Industrial Period (1700-1900) Flashcards
1
Q
Was 1700-1850 a period of continuity or change?
A
Continuity
2
Q
How did the size of the army change from 1700-1850?
A
Standing army (permanent and paid. Around 50k during peacetime and grew slowly up to 1850.
3
Q
What section of army continued to dominate in 1700-1850 and examples?
A
Infantry. Made up 75% of army in 1700
4
Q
How was the composition of armies divided in the British army during the Napoleonic wars (1808)?
A
170k infantry, 30k cavalry and 14k artillery
5
Q
What was the basic infantry weapon from 1700-1850?
A
The ‘brown bess’ musket - effective up to 100m and could be fit with a bayonet
6
Q
How many brown bess’s were made in 1700-1850?
A
8 million
7
Q
What two ways did cavalry fight in 1700-1850?
A
Either used swords or dragoons with firearms to dismount to fight
8
Q
How were artillery used in 1700-1850?
A
500m cannons against walls and large groups of infantry
9
Q
What caused light field artillery to change from 1700-1850?
A
Industry and technology
10
Q
Why weren’t cannons suitable for battle at the start of the period?
A
Weighed over a ton
11
Q
What did Britain go through from 1700-1850?
A
Industrial Revolution leading to growth
12
Q
What was mainly benefitted from the Industrial Revolution?
A
Iron industries grew and it became more common and cheap, allowing iron to be experimented as a use for artillery
13
Q
What did John ‘Iron-mad’ Wilkinson do?
A
1740s - made thinner cannon balls
1774 - made cannons lighter, more powerful and accurate
14
Q
How did light field artillery benefit armies?
A
Could be pulled around battlefield by horses
15
Q
What materials were cannons later made of to make them lighter?
A
Bronze
16
Q
Why was limited warfare the norm from 1700-1850?
A
Rulers sometimes led armies so couldn’t risk death
Muskets and artillery too deadly for battle
Transport and comms were slow
17
Q
What is evidence that muskets and artillery were too powerful for battle?
A
24,000 men on British army died in Battle of Malplaquet (1709)
18
Q
What is evidence that comms were poor in 1700-1850?
A
First new of British victory at Battle of Waterloo (1815) arrived in London via pigeon.
19
Q
How did British army protect from invasion as they tried to keep their army small?
A
Relied on English Channel and Royal Navy
20
Q
What infantry tactics were used in defence from 1700-1850?
A
Columns and lines
21
Q
What infantry tactic was used from 1700-1850 in defence?
A
Squares
22
Q
Musket fire improved, what did this allow for musketeer tactics?
A
To use two-deep lines rather than four, with bayonets for when they reach the enemy
23
Q
What is a British example of good squares use?
A
From Duke of Wellington’s army at Battle of Waterloo (1815)
24
Q
What did more complex tactics allow for commanders?
A
More witty thinking
25
How were lighter guns ideal for artillery tactics from 1700-1850?
They were versatile as they could be moved infront of infantry, onto a hill, inside a square etc.
26
How many guns did Wellington have at Waterloo?
216
27
How were cavalry used from 1700-1850?
For scouting and harassing, too dangerous against muskets
28
What is an example of cavalry being used as shock troops in early 1700s?
Duke of Marlborough
29
How did social attitudes slow change?
Due to the fact armies were kept small and government couldn't afford larger armies, the government would enforce numbers which doesn't allow human rights
30
How did political attitudes slow change?
Brits saw the French Revolution (1789) threatening power of upper classes, causing Britain's ruling classes to be nervous of change
31
How did individuals sometimes affect change from 1700-1850?
Duke of Wellington was a succcessful general but refused to modernise the army
32
How long was it till industry had a big impact on warfare?
Around 1850
33
Who were the officers of armies in 1700-1850?
Young men from wealthy families
34
Why were highest ranks of army often from nobility between 1700-1850?
These ranks were higher prices
35
Why was quality of recruitment unreliable from 1700-1850?
Officers often bought commisions for the status and lifestyle
36
What was short and life enlistment of other ranks of army from 1700-1850?
Short (8-12 year)
Life (21 years)
37
Why was it difficult to recruit good numbers in 1700-1850?
Despite pay supposed to be main incentive, was only 8d per day which is less than labourers pay and conditions at war were poor.
38
How did the army try to recruit more people from 1700-1850?
Bounties - usually £3 paid to entice people
Enlisted 'under the influence' (drunk)
Criminals released early during wartime if joined army
39
When did we see criminals released early to fight in army?
In war of American Independence, three regiments were recruited like this
40
What kind of troops did 1700-1850 methods of recruitment produce?
Bad troops who often deserted, requiring discipline to control
41
What was the governments solution to the fact that the pulic didn't like the idea of expanding the army from 1700-1850?
They paid large lump sums to senior officers to recruit and equip regiments
42
Why did officers tend to create cheap regiments?
To make profit from money given by government to recruit
43
What was the 1757 Militia act?
Advancement to the Assize of arms. Every parish in England and Wales made a list of men aged 18-50 who were randomly selected to serve 5 years in the local militia
44
What did the Militia do?
Protected country from invasion and boosted army
45
How many men in militia by 1798?
118,000
46
What book was released in 1708 to show tactics but not really used?
New Exercise of Firelocks and Bayonets
47
When was Royal Military Academy established and what for?
1741 to teach gunnery in Woolwich
48
What improvements were brought in from the 1790s wars against France?
Standard drills for manoeuvring and use of weapons issued but resisted by independent-minded officers.
1800, Royal Military College established at Sandhurst to improve training of officers
49
How did attitudes in society prevent changes in training from 1700-1850?
Officers believed training could be taught themselves
50
Hiw could impact of warfare of civilians from 1700-1850 be summarised?
Not serious or changing much
51
Why were civilian deaths minor from 1700-1850?
Navy and English Channel protected civilians from invasion and there was little fighting on British soil.
52
How was it clear that the militia system was disliked a lot?
There were riots in 1757
53
How did requisitioning work from 1700-1850?
Army had no own transport and requisitioned wagons and animals
54
How did army accomodation change from 1700-1850?
1700 - no barracks and soldiers had to find lodgings at home. As army grew, rowdy soldiers disrupted businesses in towns and cities for lodgings but stopped around 1800 as more barracks were made.
55
How did taxation in peacetime affect civilians from 1700-1850?
Burden from extra cost of army was small. Cost of army rose from £1 mil in 1700 to £8 in 1836 but the economy grew with it.
56
How did taxation in wartime affect civilians from 1700-1850?
Burden was worse at this time. Total cost of war was almost £550 mil between 1805 and 1815.
57
Why did size of army grow from 1850-1900?
As British empire grew, more troops needed abroad
58
How many troops in British army by 1899 (pre-war)?
250,000
59
How did the composition of army not rapidly change from 1850-1900?
Cavalry still useful for scouting despite new tech. In 1854, the army sent to the Crimean War had 5 infantry divisions and one cavalry division
60
What caused weapons to change from 1850-1900?
Science, technology and industry
61
How were steel cannons an advancement?
More durable and less likely to explode than iron
62
Why were breech-loading cannons used from 1850-1900?
10rpm reload
63
Why did recoiling field guns become the norm from 1850-1900?
So cannon stayed in position
64
What were percussion shells and when were they used?
By 1900, shells filled with chemicals that exploded
65
Why was smokeless powder used on guns by 1890s?
So people could be stealthy
66
What was main problem with 16th century rifles?
Hard to reload
67
When were minié bullets invented and why?
In 1847 to make bullets work up to 300m, as well as ending reliance on powder
68
Why were conical bullets created?
Flew even further
69
Why were magazines invented and example of them being used?
To hold more bullets
1888, British infantry were equipped with Lee-Montford Magazine rifles which worked up to 1.5km
70
When did machine guns first come in?
1860s
71
Which machine gun fired at 150rpm, rotated inside cannon barrel and were heavy?
Gatling gun
72
Why were maxim guns great and when did they get adopted?
Only 20kg and fed bullets for 500rpm weapon
Adopted by British in 1889 but impacted after 1900
73
What accelerated in the industrial revolution since late 18th century?
Industry
74
When did metal production improve and why?
By mid-19th century as Henry Bessemer found a way to mass-produce steel and reduce the cost to £7 a ton, leading to cheaper weapons
75
Why did factories begin to mass-produce identical parts?
So weapons were more reliable and cheaper
76
What did The Royal Small Arms Factory do in 1856?
Built a new machine shop to make 1750 rifles a week
77
How did science change weapons from 1850-1900?
Fulminate of mercury created explosives for percussion bullets
Invention of nitroglycerine allowed smokeless powder
78
What did George Armstrong do?
Created the 'Armstrong Gun'
79
What did Hiram Maxim do?
Created the 'maxim gun' in 1884
80
Why was there constantly changes in weaponry from 1850-1900?
Other countries had to catch up with weapons and go beyond to get advantage.
81
How did rifles and machine guns change tactics?
Improved defence and destroyed earlier tactics such as cavalry charges
82
How was it clear that armies over Europe were slow to learn the dominance of rifles and machine guns?
In the Battle of Inkerman (1854) 25k Russians were defeated by 7400, British defenders
83
How was it clear that after 1850 cavalry couldn't be used as shock troops?
In Charge Of The Light Brigade
84
How were cavalry used in 1850-1900?
For scouting and tradition meant the conservative nature of the army favoured cavalry
85
Why did size and cost of armies grow from 1850-1900?
Governments realised big armies with modern weapons would win
86
How could armies operate further from home from 1850-1900?
Due to long-distance transport and communications
87
3 advantages of steam-powered transport?
15x quicker than marching and not tired on arrival
First ever British railway could deliver 240 tonnes of food and supply it from Balaclava to the British front lines every day
From 1840, steamships could sail twice as fast as sail ships
88
What did the electric telegraph do and when was it used first by British army?
Sent long distance messages and used first during Crimean War as officers in Crimea could contact each other over a 24-mile network
89
When did national newspapers become popular?
By 1850
90
What were The Times daily sales by 1850?
40,000
91
How many new provincial newspapers came into towns in Britain in 1850?
500
92
Who was William Howard Russell and what did he do?
He was a Times Reporter who got reports from the Crimea almost daily for two years. He described truumphs and bravery but also graphic detail of what went wrong
93
How did William Howard Russell influence the public?
They saw the failure of leadership and shortages of weapons and supplies
94
What was Roger Fenton employed to do?
Take photos in the Crimea in 1855. Concentrated on daily lives of soldiers such as poor quality uniforms, tents and camps
95
When did Britain figt wars against the Boers in South Africa?
1889-1902
96
How many news correspondents were sent to the Boer Wars?
300
97
How much did interest in the war boost Daily Mail circulation?
Up to 500,000 copies a day
98
How did music halls add a whole new dimension to reporting?i
Put on films reconstructing events of the Boer war
99
How did reporting methods change armies and warfare?
Due to attidues in society in response to reporting
100
Why was there a shortage of troops from 1850-1900 that caused a change in recruitment?
There had been 40 years od relative peace before 1854. Most of army was abroad so local militia had to supply 25k regular troops the War Office needed to fight in Crimea
101
Why did the quality of troops cause change in recruitment from 1850-1900?
Crimean war exposed quality of officers in newspapers
102
When were the Royal Commision set up and why?
In 1858 to investigate ways to improve recruitment
103
Why weren't public too concerned on recruitment from 1850-1900?
Feared the medical conditions in the Crimea more.
104
When was new government under William Galdstone elected?
1868
105
What was William Galdstone prepared to do?
Pass laws to enforce changes in British society and used Parliament to force change upon the army
106
Who did William Galdstone appoint as his Secretary of state for war?
Edward Cardwell
107
What did Cardwell want and what did he prove?
Wanted a professional army and enforced it despite opposition, showing the government can change warfare.
108
What did the 1870 Army Act state?
Lower ranks were to be enlisted for 12 years, with reserves paid 4d a day and annually retrained. After enlistment was over, could resign or rejoin again for a pension
109
What did the 1871 Regularisation of the Forces Act state?
Regiments were to be reorganised into regions with local barracks holding all regiments with two 'linked' battalions each (one at home and one abroad)
110
What made up the third battalion of each regiment in the regularisation of forces act?
Local militia in each area
111
What happened in 1871?
Rations improved, brandishing abolished as punishment in army. Sale of commissions was ended and promotion became based on merit.
112
How many men were in reserves by 1900?
80,000
113
Why did officers still come from the same class through all of 1850-1900?
Officer training was expensive yet the pay was low
114
Why were recruits physically weak for the Boer War (1899)?
Low pay for lower ranks meant less numbers so recruitment ignoring physical requirements
115
When did government send a commission to visit major military powers in Europe and why?
1856 to assess training after criticism of commanding in COTLB.
116
How had training improved by 1860s?
More officers came from the Junior Department of Royal military college and artillery officers trained at Woolwich Military academy.
117
What did the Senior Department of the Royal Military College do?
Gave training for existing officers
118
Why did new military schools open and example?
To train weapon instructors such as at Hythe in 1853 for rifle instructing
119
How was training making the army more professional by 1900?
It included many of the school subjects and developed scientific practical skills for war
120
What was reported to be badly supplied during the Crimean War?
Food and ammo
121
How was the organisation of the army divided up before 1850?
Among several government ministries
122
When did most work move to the War Office and why?
From 1855 so transport and supplies could be taken over more professionally
123
What did the War Office cut back on?
Requisitoning
124
Who was requisitioning unpopular with?
Private owners as it was inefficient
125
What happened in 1855?
War Office formed the Land Transport Corps ('military train')
126
What happened in 1888?
Army Service Corps created with troops which specialised in provision and movement of supplies
127
How were high quality recruits attracted?
Being in the army became a career
128
Why was there no direct physical impact on civilians from 1850-1900?
No warfare on mainland of Britain in this period
129
How did civilians become more socially and politically active from 1850-1900?
During the Crimean War, people wrote letters to the press expressing incompetence of leaders. After only a few months of criticism, it led government to resign.
130
Example of public raising money to support good causes?
£5000 raised in a week when The Times set up a fund to help sick and wounded soldiers
131
How did the public try to make a practical difference in war efforts?
The Reform Club sent chef to improve cooking
132
Why was Imperialism an attitude in society?
Reports of British victories abroad boosted belief to spread British values everywhere
133
What was Jingoism in society?
Extremely patriotic form of foregin policy where military force was favoured to boost British interests.
134
Where was pacifism common?
In the Quakers and the Manchester Guardian
135
Why did attitudes become a more important factor in warfare after 1850?
Due to increased democracy and press coverage.
