Industrial and social developments in towns and cities Flashcards
How did Stalin choose to advance his economic programme for industry?
Through a series of five year plans which set attainment targets for industrial enterprises
What was the role of Gosplan?
The state planning agency was given responsibility for drawing up the plans and establishing output targets for every economic enterprise in accordance with party directives
Why was Gosplans job so difficult?
The communist government made the overall decision as to what should be produced and when, over a five year period, while regional party leaders competed to put forwards ambitious projects and argue with Gosplan as to why their region should have first call o resources
What did Gosplan also suffer from?
A lack of reliable information (particularly on the price of imports or the price that exports might command)and they faced the difficulty of planning for many variables and changing commodities
Why were the targets set usually so ambitious?
They were intended to force managers and workers to devote their maximum effort to the programme and the launching and fulfilment of these plans was accompanied by much propaganda
Why did all those involved in administering and carrying out the plans grow to great lengths to ensure that the reported statistics showed great improvements - often above the targets initially set?
Failure to achieve a target was deemed a criminal offence
What was the result of this fear to fill the targets?
Corruption and faulty reporting was built into the system from the beginning
What were workers of Gosplan based in the unenviable position of?
Working from deliberately falsified statistics and if things went wrong its officials could be held responsible , once plans got underway thousands of state employees were dismissed including members of Gosplan’s offices on the grounds they weren’t sufficiently class-conscious , enthusiastic or free from corruption
When was the first Five Year Plan approved?
At the Sixteenth Party Congress in April 1929 although the plan was backdated to October 1928
What was the first issue with the first plan?
It wasn’t based on secure data and the targets were extremely over ambitious
What are examples of the over ambitious targets for the first plan? (million tonnes)
Coal production 1927-28 = 35.4 Target production for 1932-33 = 75
Oil production 1927-28 = 11.7 Target production for 1932-33 = 22
Steel production 1927-28 = 4 Target production for 1932-33 = 10.4
Pig iron production 1927-28 = 3.3 Target production for 1932-33 = 10
What should be acknowledged in the flaws of the first plan?
It was an experiment with no obvious example elsewhere from which to learn - particularly at a time of economic collapse in the west following the Wall Street Crash
What was one major problem with the plans regarding Stalin?
The people were afraid to question anything about them as Stalin’s regime became more authoritarian and criticisms might easily be labelled as disloyalty, sabotage or treason
What was the Wall-Street Crash and what was the consequence?
The American stock market collapsed in October 1929 bankrupting many enterprises in both the USA and Europe which had relied on American loan. It caused the Great Depression, a time of low productivity and widespread unemployment in the capitalist west
What did the first plan focus on?
The development of heavy industry such as coal and steel - raw materials that were a means of making other products
What were the aims of the first plan?
To increase production by 300%
Focus on the development of coal, iron, steel, oil and machinery
Boost electricity production by 600%
Double the output from light industry such as chemicals
What did the publicity surrounding the first plans launch provoke?
An enthusiastic response
Were the targets met?
Such was its success that Stalin claimed the targets mad been met in 4 years not 5 but this was probably due to over enthusiastic reporting by local officials keen to show their loyalty and effort
In reality none of the targets were actually met, although investment brought some impressive growth
What were some of the achievements of the first plan?
Electricity output trebled
Coal and iron output doubled
Steel production increased by 1/3
New railways, engineering plants, HEP schemes and industrial complexes sprung up
What were the failings at the end of the first plan?
The targets for the chemical industry were not met and house-building, food-processing and other consumer industries were woefully neglected
There were too few skilled workers and too little effective central coordination for efficient development
Smaller industrial works and workshops lost out in the competition from the bigger factories
What did the second plan do?
Built on the infrastructure provided by the first plan
Gave more attention to consumer goods than the first plan but heavy industry still remained the overall priority
What were the aims of the second plan
To continue the development of heavy industry
Promote the growth of light industries such as chemicals and electricals and consumer goods
Develop communications to provide links between cities and other industrial areas
Foster engineering and tool making
What were the successes of the second plan?
The ‘three good years’ 1934-1936 during which the Moscow Metro was opened (1935)
The Volga canal was opened in 1937 and the Dnieprostrio Dam producing hydroelectric power which had been completed in 1932 was extended with four more generators to make it the largest dam in Europe
Electricity production and chemical industries grew rapidly and new metals such as copper. zinc and tin were mined for the first time
Steel output trebled, coal production doubled and by 1937 the SU was virtually self-sufficient in metal goods and machine tools
In 1936 how did the focus of the second plan change slightly?
A greater emphasis was placed on rearmament which rose from 4% of GDP in 1933 to 17% by 1937
What were some of the weaknesses of the second plan?
Old production failed to meet targets and despite some expansion in footwear and food-processing there was still no appreciable increase in consumer goods
Emphasis on quantity rather than quality which had also inhibited the first plan continued
When did the three plans take place?
First plan = 1928-1932
Second plan = 1933-1937
Third plan = 1938-1942
What were some key figures of the second plan failing to meet its targets?
Coal 1937 target = 152.5 Actual = 128
Oil 1937 target = 46.8 Actual = 28.5
Tractors (in thousands) 1937 target = 166.7 Actual 66.5
What were some key figures for the success of the second plan in meeting its targets?
Steel 1937 target = 17 Actual = 17.7 Machine tools (thousands) 1937 target= 40 Actual=45.5 Electricity target 1937 = 38,000 Actual = 36,000 KwH (considering ambitious nature of plans this is successful)
Give two examples of the first plan failing to meet its targets?
1932-33 target production Steel = 10.4 Actual = 5.9
1932-33 target production pig iron=10 Actual =6.2
Were there improvements between the first and second plans?
Significant increase in amount produced but also much more ambitious targets - see book for figures
What did the third plan focus on?
The needs of the defensive sector due to the growing threat Nazi Germany posed to the USSR
What was the third plan disrupted by?
The approach of war in 1941
What were the aims of the third plan?
Place a renewed emphasis on development of heavy industry
Promote rapid rearmament
Complete the transition to communism
What were some weaknesses of the third plan?
Steel production stagnated, oil failed to meet targets causing a fuel crisis and many industries found themselves short of raw materials
Consumer goods were once again relegated to the lowest priority
Which areas did benefit during the third plan?
Heavy industry the biggest beneficiary with strong growth in machinery and engineering
Although varied across the country, resources were increasingly diverted to rearmament on which spending doubled between 1938 and 1940
What was the biggest problem with the third plan?
The lack of good managers, specialists and technicians following Stalin’s purges
What else inhibited the success of the third plan?
There was an exceptionally hard winter in 1938 and the needs of defence played a part
The plan was disrupted and finished early because of the German invasion of 1941
What ‘show-piece’ projects did the plans involve?
Designed to show the modernity and capabilities of the soviet state they included The Dnieprostroi Dam The Turksib Railway The Moscow Metro The Moscow-Volga Canal
When was the Dnieprostroi Dam constructed and what was it?
Construction began in 1927 and it was opened October 1932
It was the largest hydro-electric power station on the Dnieper River (In Ukraine)
Generation 560 MW the station became the largest Soviet power plant and at the time one of the largest in the world
What are the additional details of the Dnieprostroi Dam?
The power station was built on deserted land in the countryside
It was planned to provide electricity for several aluminium production plants and a high quality steel production plant that were also to be constructed in the area
It began generation electricity during the first five year plan , after four further generators were installed in the second plan it increased Soviet electric power five-fold in 1932
The industrial centres of Dniepropetrovsk, Zaporizhia and Kryvyi Rih grew from the power provided
When was the Turksib railway constructed and what was it?
Build 1926-1931 (passenger service began in 1929)
Also known as the Central Asiatic Railway it connected central Asia with Siberia
Ran from Tashkent to Novosibirsk where it met the West Siberian portion of the Trans-Siberian railway
What were the additional details of the Turksib railway?
Huge construction project built for political as well as economic reasons
Designed to create a working class in the steppes and semi-desert of central Asia
Built by nearly 50,000 workers
The line also facilitated the transport of cotton from Turkestan to Siberia and cheap Siberian grain from Russia to the Fergana Valley
When was the Moscow Metro opened and what was it?
Opened in 1935
It was one 11km line was 13 stations
The first underground railway station in the USSR
It was extended in a second stage in 1938 but a third stage was delayed due to war
What were the additional details of the metro?
Part of the second plan which focused on urbanisation and needed to cope with the influx of peasants to the city in the 30’s
Ambitious architectural project designed to prove that a socialist metro could surpass capitalist designs
Drew resources and specialist workers from the entire USSR
Artists and architects were employed to produce a system that reflected a radiant future including marble walls, high ceilings, grand chandeliers and the use of steel
When was the Moscow-Volga canal constructed and what was it?
Constructed between 1932 and 1937
Connects the Muskva and Volga rivers
One of the world’s tallest statues of Lenin (25m high) was built in 1937 at the confluence of the Volga river and the Canal
What were the additional details of the canal?
It was built by prisoners from the Dmitlag labour camp - which grew to be one of the largest of its kind in 1934
During the construction 200,000 prisoners were employed of which 22,000 died
Those fulfilling their work quotas were give 600g of bread per day and those that did not received 400g and those being punished got 300g
White Sea Baltic Canal of 1933 built in similar way (forced labour)
What are examples of other major projects involving the construction of completely new industrial cities?
Magnitogorsk in the Urals or Komsomolsk in the Far East of Russia - these complexes were intended to showcase socialism in action
What was Magnitogorsk?
A gigantic steel plant and a town of 150,000 people that was created from nothing
Workers lived in communal barracks beneath imposing pictures of Lenin and Stalin and were subject to constant lectures and political discussions
What was Komsomolsk?
The result of a government decision in 1931 to construct a shipyard on the river Amur in East Russia to open up this area
Largely built using volunteer labour from the communist youth organisation Komsomol
It also used penal labour from prison camps in the area
When was Komsomolsk complete?
By the end of the 1930’s several shipyards and heavy plant had been completed and the city became a regional centre for industries such as metallurgy, machinery, oil refining and shipbuilding
To provide the necessary expertise for the vast projects who were the USSR forced to turn to and who is an example?
Foreign companies and individuals with both managerial and technical skills
E.g. American - Henry Ford advised on the car industry, training Russian engineers in USA and helping to design the car-plant at Gorky
Who did the Dam project use?
Experience gained from the construction of the hydro-electric stations in Canada and in 1932 six American engineers were awarded the ‘order of the red banner of labour’ for outstanding work in the construction of the dam
What did the development of the Moscow Metro rely on?
Construction engineers from Britain - although built and decorated by native workers, the engineering designs, routes and construction plans were handled by specialists recruited from the London Underground
At the time of the depression what did communism present to foreign workers?
An attraction - some foreigners genuinely believed they were contributing to a new world order - sometimes ordinary labourers travelled to the USSR from the West to work on these new planta
What was the issue with foreigners working in the USSR and why did British involvement end?
They were sometimes looked upon with suspicion and it was easy to scapegoat them when things went wrong
The secret police arrested numerous British engineers working in Moscow because they had gained an in depth knowledge of the city’s geographical layout
Engineers for the Metrovick were also arrested and deported in 1933 ending the role of British business in the USSR
Who was Aleksei Stakhanov?
A coal miner in the Don Basin who cut an extraordinary 102 tonnes of coal with his pneumatic pick in 5 hours 45 in August 1935 ( the amount of coal expected from a minor in 14x the length of time
What did Stakhanov therefor become hailed as?
An example of how human determination and endeavour might increase productivity - he was declared a soviet hero and given a large bonus, honorary awards and competitions were arranged for others to emulate his achievements
Why was the Stakhanovite movement ideal propaganda and what had happened by December 1935?
The party was trying to create a new proletarian culture based on teamwork and selfless sacrifice
By December the number of broken records had entered the world of make-believe and filled two volumes
What did the movement become?
A way of forcing management to support their workers so as to increase production
Why was the movement not universally popular with all workers at the time?
There was some jealousy attached to the Stakhanovite’s receipt of superior accommodation and other material benefits
There are records of Stakhanovites being attacked by colleagues who were less enthusiastic and resented campaigns to make them work even harder
What was later revealed about Stakhanov?
Much of it had been a propaganda stunt - he had been given a support team of several workers who had done everything possible to support him e.g. carrying out a range of tasks that miners were usually expected to do for themselves such as propping up the roof so he only had to focus on cutting coal
What were industrial enterprises placed under the control of?
Directors or managers who had the unenviable task of ensuring that the output targets set by regional administrators (working under the Commissariat for their particular economic area) were met
Why did factory managers have difficult jobs?
Fulfilling quotas while having limited control over their own resources, prices, wages and other costs wasn’t an easy task
They did their best to negotiate the largest workforce and wage fund possible but once this was established a manager had little choice but to focus on surpassing the output target
What did a manager receive if he did better than expected?
A bonus that could be as much as 40% of his salary so while managers received high salaries and status as part of the new industrial elite, production quota was always an overriding concern
What happened as a result of the pressure put on managers and what were the possible punishment for managers?
It became normal to falsify statistics - bribery and corruption became embedded in the system
Managers could be put on trial, imprisoned or even executed if he failed to meet targets
He also had to ensure his books balanced as to not be charged with ‘wrecking’
From 1936 what did factories have to pay for?
Their own fuel, raw materials and labour from their profits so managers had to account carefully or appear to have credible figures
What were managers also expected to apply in the work place and why was this a problem?
State regulations - there were national ‘work norms’ which governed how much work a labourer should he expected to do and rules such as those in absenteeism to be enforced
Made it difficult for managers to earn the good will of his labour force and some tried to ignore the rules, proving keener to pay bonuses than to punish to prevent production levels falling
How much were work norms raised by in 1936 and what was the result?
Between 10% and 50% - it became even harder for managers to deal with protesting workers but any attempt to bypass regulations or lower the norm could result in accusations of sabotage
Why did Stakhanovites prove a particular problem to factory managers?
Too much effort from them could lead to factory targets being revised upwards, creating new problems for output in the following year
Workers keen to show their expertise and earn medals etc sometimes accused managers of wrecking their Stakhanovite attempts by failing to supply good tools or resources
What did managers face in the late 1930’s?
A slump in trade due to the worldwide depression
Also labour shortages as conditions on collective farms improved, reducing immigration to cities and increasing numbers of young men were conscripted into the army
What else did military demands do?
Exacerbated shortages of raw materials (particularly oil, coal and wood) at a time when consumer demand was growing
What were living like for managers?
The manager who managed his books well could enjoy a reasonably comfortable life but most kept any illegal gains hidden for fear of being reported
For the honest managers living conditions were not far removed of those of his workers
What is proletarianization?
Turning the mass of the population into urban workers thus rising society of selfish capitalist attitudes and developing a cooperation mentality
Despite communist talk of proletarianization and the creation of the socialist man what were the conditions like?
Far from a socialist paradise
What tough measured did the drive for industrialisation bring?
A seven day working week
Longer working hours
Arriving late or missing work could result in dismissal, eviction from housing and loss of benefits
Damaging machinery or leaving a job without permission was a criminal offence and strikes were illegal
From 1938 what were introduced in the work place?
Labour books (in addition to internal passports) that recorded workers employment, skills and any disciplinary issues
Why was there a certain degree of enthusiasm among workers in early industrialisation?
An extensive training programme was set up and opportunities for advancement by learning new skills meant some workers did well
The drive produced new opportunities for social advancement
From 1931 what were introduced to do with wages and why?
Wage differentials to reward those who stayed in their jobs and worked hard
By allowing managers to vary wages, award bonuses, pay by the piece and offer better housing to reward skills and devoted application the proletariat became more diverse in its experience (some thriving while some struggled)
Who did Stalin’s purges in the 1930’s hit hardest?
The intellectuals and white collar workers - reducing the number competing for jobs and creating plenty of vacancies ‘at the top’
What did the numbers that poured into industrial cities in the early 30’s cause?
Meant workers lived in extremely cramped, communal apartments where they had inadequate sanitation and erratic water supplies
Public transport was overcrowded and shops were often empty with queues and shortages an accepted feature of life
What was the problem with real wages?
Although they increased during the second five year plan, they were still lower in 1937 than they had been in 1928 (in 1928 they were only marginally better than 1913)
What was phased out in 1935 and what was the problem with this?
Rationing - market prices were high so those in positions of importance in the socialist system e.g. party officials could obtain more goods more cheaply and this was not the case for ordinary workers whose living standards stagnated and may even have fallen slightly in the last year before the war
How did labour discipline become harsher in 1939 and 1940 with the prospect of war looming?
Being twenty minutes late for work became a criminal offence
A decree in 1940 ended the free labour market so skilled workers could be directed anywhere and others needed permission to change jobs
Social benefits also cut
What are real wages?
What can actually be bought with money wages, taking into account the varying price of goods
What is an example of prison inmates being forced to labour for the state in order to fulfil Stalin’s grand projects?
The Belomor Canal was built almost entirely by manual labour between 1931 and 1933
The labour force employment on this project reached 300,000 at its peak and many died of overwork, poor treatment, lack of food and disease
The death rate was 700 per day with new prisoners coming into the camps in the canal area at a rate of 1500 per day
The average survival time was just two years
Was convict labour useful?
Thousands of convicts in the labour camps died in the brutal conditions
It is far from certain how useful this labour force was - it is likely that the State spent more on resources and guarding the prisoners than they got back in productive work
How much of the workforce did women make up and Despite communist doctrines of equality in 1929 what did women face?
29%
They were largely concentrated in the lowest paid jobs requiring the least skill , particularly in light industry
They were routinely discriminated against and paid less than man for fulfilling the same work norms - this didn’t change immediately with the first plan
What was Zhenotdel and what happened to it?
It was the department of the Russian Communist Party devoted to womens affairs and it was closed down in January 1930 and there was no drive to increase female labour
Despite there being no female recruitment drive what did women workers do?
Entered the Soviet industry in large numbers - as prices rose, urban working class women flooded into industry and also found jobs in education, healthcare and admin in order to sustain their families
By 1935 what percentage of industrial workers were women?
42%
What did the desperate attempts of factory managers to reach their quotas lead them to do?
Employ the wives, widows and teenage daughters of their male workers
What was a strength of the female workers?
Not only proved a valuable labour resource but they were also more reliable than the victims of collectivisation from the countryside
What did the employment of urban women reduce the need for?
Further housing development to cope with migration into cities so they indirectly helped in the accumulation of capital for further industrial growth
What happened during the second five year plan with women but what did factory managers continue to do despite this?
The party realised the value of female workers so sent orders for more women to be employed in heavy industry
Many factory managers continued to hire women for the jobs requiring fewest skills and were reluctant to offer promotions or train women to take on skilled work
What happened to women on the factory floor?
They might be harassed both physically and sexually by their male co-workers and with the abolition of the Zhenotdel there was no institution to fight inequality in the work place
From 1936 what did the party make more of an effort to do and what was the consequence?
Enrol women in technical training programmes and even made womens entry into management positions easier - therefore increasing numbers of women that found their way to well-paid skilled positions including work in heavy industry like lumber, metal and machine production
What was provided enabling women to cope with work and family?
State nurseries, creches, canteens and child clinics
On average how much less did women earn and by 1940 how much of the industrial work force was female?
Average = 40% less than men
By 1940 just over 43% industrial workforce = women
Despite their weaknesses what did the five year plans ultimately help to do?
Transform the USSR into a modern industrial economy
By stimulating economic growth and increasing output the Soviet economy grew at 5-6% each year between 1928 and 1940
Became a major industrial power and just over 10 years
What was the key issue with the plans?
Over ambitious targets and focus on quantity meant that products were often of poor quality
What did the first five year plan see and what did the second plan add?
First five year plan saw impressive gains in several areas of heavy industry e.g. engineering
Second plan added a huge growth in construction and transport
What happened to the industrial work force between 1928 and 1932?
It doubled
What was the increase in urban population from 1926 and 1939?
From 26 million to 56 million
After initial dislocation what did the workers enjoy and what did this include?
Three good years 1934-36 , there was an increase in consumer goods (things such as gramophones made their first appearance in the USSR for ordinary citizens
Productivity and wages both rose while prices fell
Why did the gains following from the good years not last?
Third plan interrupted by approach of war so that the original targets could not be met
Shortages recurred and resources were diverted
Which industry did the plans promote a huge growth in and how was this shown?
Armaments industry with tanks, aircraft and guns produced that were the equal of and in some cases superior to anything produced elsewhere in the world
The ability of the USSR to gear itself for war was a reflection of the success of the plans
What were the downsides of the plans but what provided some relief to the oil problem?
Social problems
Shortage of skilled labourers
The USSRs inability to extract sufficient oil for their needs- some relief gained by Soviet occupation of eastern Poland in late 1939 and the Baltic States in 1940, adding to the USSR’s economic potential
Did the plans achieve what they set out to?
To an extent - the plans advanced the proletarianization of the Russian people and transformed the basis of the Soviet economy
Also helped to foster a sense of pride and belief that the communist system was superior to Western capitalism which suffered greatly in the Depression of the 30’s - despite resistance
