Individual Differences inc. attribution theory, mindset, intelligence, rewards, motivation

Question 1

Intellectuality

Answer 1

fundamentally a state of mind, and acceptance of the need to be effortful, strategic and persistent in meeting challenging intellectual tasks.

Intellectuality is primarily about “habits of mind”: a disposition to be effortful, strategic and persistent

it is HOW we use intellectual skills

Question 2

Domains in student learning

Answer 2

Affective Domain
Cognitive Domain
Metacognitive Domain

Question 3

Kinds of DISPOSITIONS

Answer 3

Epistemological
Goal Structure
Approach to Learning
Ontological
Self-regulation
Perception of Learning Environment
Self-efficacy
Intelligence
Causal Attributions

Question 4

Motivation is

Answer 4

Internal Process

Energises, directs and maintains behaviours

Question 5

Engagement is

Answer 5

Energy in action

How an individual connects to an activity

Question 6

Intrinsic Motivation

Answer 6

Intrinsic motivation comes from within, or internal factors such as:
Curiosity, Excitement, Enjoyment, Confidence, Satisfaction at a job well done

Question 7

Extrinsic Motivation

Answer 7

Extrinsic motivation comes from without, or external sources (incentives) such as:
Praise, Rewards, High marks/grades, Food, Money

Question 8

School rewards - over justification effect

Answer 8

Occurs when an expected external incentive (money, prizes, etc.) decreases a person’s intrinsic motivation to do a task:
Once the reward no longer offered, interest in the task may not return

Question 9

School rewards - sensible approach

Answer 9

Concrete rewards can motivate students to attend class, to behave well, or to produce better work. But if you are not careful in choosing what you reward, they can prompt students to produce shoddy work — and worse, they can cause students to actually dislike school subjects.
Therefore: Don’t use rewards unless you have to; use rewards for a specific reason, and use them for a limited time.
With time, appropriate pedagogies, you can move a student from being bored and unmotivated into a keen, intrinsically motivated one.

Question 10

Traits

Answer 10

stable and lasting dispositions that students come with

Question 11

States

Answer 11

short-term conditions and feelings, which can recur and are innate (e.g. hunger) or learnt (e.g. test anxiety).

Question 12

Anxiety

Answer 12

causes feelings of tension, uneasiness and even apprehension

Question 13

Arousal

Answer 13

heightened alertness and attentiveness

Question 14

Extrinsic reinforcement

Answer 14

smiles, praise, stickers, stamps, rewards

Question 15

Maslow’s heirarchy

theories of motivation

Answer 15

certain needs must be met before moving to next level

hard to learn when basic needs aren’t met such - hunger etc

Question 16

Self-determination theory

Answer 16

3 needs in this area
Competence (Feel effective)
Autonomy (own locus of causality)
Relatedness (feel emotionally connected to others)

Question 17

Achievement motivation theories

Answer 17

in striving for success, the motivation of the students will be to approach success or avoid failure. In the latter case, failure will not be their fault

Question 18

Expectancy-value beliefs:

motivation is linked to achievement and competence theory with four key values when approaching tasks.

Answer 18

Intrinsic value: personal pleasure
Utility value: usefulness to a future goal
Attainment value: importance of doing it well
Cost value: toll it could take on the person

Question 19

Attribution Theory

Answer 19

Individuals try to make sense of what happens to them and others, often by asking ‘why’ questions.

Examples of such questions include:
Why did I get a HD last assignment or
why did I fail that exam?

The reasons/answers you give are attributions

Question 20

Dimensions of Attribution Theory

Individuals have three dimensions to consider when attributing success or failure

Answer 20

LOCUS: Internal (to one) OR external (to one)
STABILITY: Stable OR unstable
CONTROLLABILITY: Controllable OR uncontrollable

Question 21

Locus of control

Answer 21

Causes of success or failure are linked to:
one’s ability or effort, i.e. internal, OR
luck, task difficulty, or even poor teaching, i.e. external.

Question 22

Stability

Answer 22

Causes of success or failure may be:
stable, e.g. aptitude or ability OR
unstable, e.g. mood or health during a test

Question 23

Controlability

Answer 23

Causes of success or failure are linked to certain factors being:
controllable, e.g. effort expended on a task, OR
uncontrollable, e.g. degree of difficulty or quality of the task or questions

Question 24

Mastery Goals

Answer 24

Intrinsic, usually involves deep learning strategies

Question 25

Performance Goals

Answer 25

Extrinsic, performing well, and getting good grades, may exhibit avoidance strategies.

Question 26

Performance-approach Goals

Answer 26

Are more adaptive that performance-avoid goals. Individuals are motivated to appear competent to others and show that they can outperform them, striving to achieve good grades.

Question 27

Performance-avoid Goals

Answer 27

These individuals are concerned with avoiding the appearance of incompetence.

Question 28

Learned Helplessness

Answer 28

When children learn to feel helpless and believe there is nothing they can do to improve, no matter how hard they try, they give up. Unresponsive environment. Such students attribute to their own inadequacies, which undermines their self-worth and motivation.

Question 29

Fixed Mindset

Answer 29

Fixed. “I can’t get any smarter”.

Negative internal dialogue. ‘stuck’ ‘I can’t’ Gives up quickly. Ignores constructive criticism.

Question 30

Growth Mindset

Answer 30

If I work hard and use good strategies I can get smarter in this area.
Positive internal dialogue. Learns from criticism. Says “I can’t do it YET”

Question 31

Classroom Strategies 1 (mindsets etc)

Answer 31

Encourage your students to adopt a growth mindset
Don’t worry about whether or not you are smart
Focus on effort and good strategies (SR)
Utilise the power of the word yet ( I may not be able to yet, but…)
Provide models of success
Peer models
Multiple models
Coping models (not flawless experts)

Question 32

Classroom Strategies 2 (mindsets etc)

Answer 32

Encourage students to set achievable goals
Help students develop self-regulation skills
Provide students with reality checks to challenge false beliefs that are negative (disequilibrium)
Praise effort above all else
Be honest (students need to be able to trust you)
Help students develop strategies that are appropriate to tasks
Embrace failure as part of learning
Encourage questions (no such thing as a stupid question)

Question 33

Teaching (mindsets etc)

Answer 33

Enjoy your work
Design engaging and meaningful lessons
Know your students
Utilise the Quality Teaching model
Model when you can

Question 34

INTELLIGENCE

Answer 34

the ability to acquire and apply knowledge and skills.
The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new experiences.

is NOT fixed, can grow, change, brain neuroplasticity,
(genes can account for more than 50% of our intelligence?

Question 35

Nature & Nurture

Answer 35

Nature = genes, hormones
Nurture = environment you grow up in - family/home structure, upbringing, nourishment, etc

Question 36

Dundedin Study in NZ

Answer 36

Longitudinal Study. From 60’s/70’s still going. Blood samples taken.
Investigate the nature and prevalence of health and development problems and causal factors, implications and longer-term consequences.
1037 babies

Question 37

Epigenetics

Answer 37

study of interaction of genes/hormones (nature) & the environment
Impact of life situations on genetics
Genes can be turned on or off
These changes can pass on to new generations
not all genes activate - changes in lifestyle can activate these (or turn them off)

Question 38

Nature VIA Nurture

Answer 38

Epigenetics studies show it’s not nature vs nurture but

Nature VIA nurture

Question 39

Robert Sternberg - intelligence

Answer 39

• Focus is on acting intelligently in one’s life, not having a set “amount” of intelligence (such as an IQ score of 118)
• Intelligence is changeable
• Schools should be not just teach content, but also develop students’ intelligence.

Question 40

Sternberg’s ‘Triarchic’ theory of intelligence

Answer 40

Componential intelligence (analytic): think abstractly, process information, verbal ability (rather similar to IQ tests) - analytical intelligence = mental steps/components used to solve problems
Experiential intelligence (creative): formulate new ideas, combine unrelated facts - Creative intelligence = use of experience in ways that foster insight
Contextual intelligence (practical): adapt to a changing environment, problem-solving in specific situations - Practical intelligence = ability to read and adapt to the contexts of everyday life.

Question 41

Howard Gardner - intelligence

Answer 41

Argues for at least 8 separate intelligences
Many psychologists disagree - these are valuable talents or abilities but not forms of intelligence
Lacks empirical evidence to support theory
Theory used simplistically in schools (e.g., make use of each intelligence in every lesson) – this approach to be avoided

Question 42

Cognitive styles/learning styles (preferences)

Answer 42

different ways people perceive and process and remember information

ways in which students prefer to learn, i.e., how they interact with information in order to learn

Question 43

Modality preference

Answer 43

seeing it (VISUAL)
hearing it (AUDITORY)
touching it (KINESTHETIC)?  

Note: We may have a natural preference for the way in which we receive information

Question 44

Teaching - Learning Styles

Answer 44

Teaching students in their preferred modality does not lead to higher marks
Teach students in best modality for the lesson
You want students to remember what things mean, not what they look like or sound like (recall deep Vs surface learning)
Deliver content in different ways

Question 45

Charles Spearman - intelligence

Answer 45

Two factors
General capacity ‘g’
Specific mental abilities ‘s’

Question 46

Raymond Cattell - intelligence

Answer 46

Cattell
Two components of ‘g’
Crystallised intelligence
Fluid intelligence

Question 47

Affective Domain defintion

Answer 47

The affective domain involves our feelings, emotions, and attitudes, and includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally (feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivations, and attitudes).
BLOOM
Our beliefs, our attitudes and confidence all have a part to play in our learning.
They impact both our motivations and attributions.
Remember, they can be positive or negative, and might not even be accurate!

Question 48

Self-concept - definition

Answer 48

How we see ourselves. Our mental model or representation of ourselves. Who am I?

Question 49

Self-esteem - definiton

Answer 49

Our sense of pride or satisfaction in our self
Do I like who I am?
Am I a lovable person?

Question 50

Self-efficacy - definiton

Answer 50

How confident we are that we can successfully do a specific task. Belief whether we can or can’t do a task. Linked to mindsets.
I can/can’t do this task!
I believe

Question 51

Differentiated Self-Concept

Answer 51

Primary children
Self-concept becomes more differentiated as children start to compare themselves to others.
Social: I have lots of friends
Physical: I’m short for my age
Academic: I’m not one of the smart kids

High school children
By adolescence, they tend not to have a global self-concept, the focus is on domain specific self-concepts.
There are more comparisons (recall Erikson),
more differentiation,
up to 12 domains (including maths, verbal, physical ability, appearance, peers, parents, religion and honesty)

Question 52

Big Fish Little Pond Effect

Answer 52

when students who used to come in top percentile at primary school, negatively compare themselves to others. It is linked to a student’s academic self-concept
Self-concept. Can start to have a negative effect.

Question 53

Self-esteem - needs to be at healty levels

Answer 53

too high = narcisissm - unhealthy focus on self, doesn’t cope well with failure
too low = depression - unhealthy focus on self, gives up easily, negative view of self e.g. unlovable, hopeless, at fault etc

Healthy = also a focus on others, not just on self,
realistic of faults but happy in themselves

Question 54

Self-efficacy - summary

Answer 54

Belief/confidence in one’s ability to perform tasks successfully
Students with high self-efficacy (I can do this task) set high goals and persist even when things become difficult or hard
Students with low self-efficacy (I can’t do this task) refuse to even try, or give up easily when difficulties occur
Students with ACCURATE self-efficacy - know how well they expect to do
Recall the power of the word ‘yet’
NB: There is a strong link between self-efficacy and self-regulation.
A student’s self-efficacy is their PERCEPTION of competence, NOT their actual competence.

Question 55

Teaching - Self-efficacy

Answer 55

Use the word yet, align it with time and effort (no one gets everything right first go)
Mastery skills – set students tasks they can succeed at, increase difficulty slowly
Use peers to help model skills
Ensure the class atmosphere is about personal best, encouragement and mistakes are a part of learning; avoid competition
Provide models
Encourage without patronising
Depressed students may need more help (school counsellor or psychologist)

Question 56

Delayed Gratification - definition

Answer 56

Delayed gratification is the skill/ability of being able to persistently avoid immediate gratification, i.e. hold off on something pleasurable in order to achieve a specific goal

Question 57

Reasons students don’t thrive at school

Answer 57

beliefs that they don’t belong or aren’t smart;
learning or language difficulties;
SES status;
ATSI;
cultural identity;
see no relevance to school and their future; and/or
family history.

Question 58

Students who get most out of school

Answer 58

believe they belong in school both academically and socially;
see school as relevant to their future; 
set future goals;
work hard; 
delay immediate gratification;
are not derailed by learning or social difficulties;
seek out challenges; and they
remain engaged over the long haul.

Question 59

Teaching - keeping all students engaged/motivated

Answer 59

Revise the Quality Teaching model
Develop lesson plans that are relevant and engaging
Make the effort to help students feel that they belong in school
Show students (and sometimes their parents too) how school is relevant to their future lives (e.g. freedom to make choices about careers)
Help students learn how to set future goals
Encourage hard work, praise their efforts
Help students delay immediate gratification (help develop and use SR skills)
Encourage them to seek out challenges, to accept mistakes are essential to learning
Encourage them not to give up when difficulties arise
Praise their efforts and remember the power of the word yet

Question 60

What does MA & CA mean?

Answer 60

MA = Mental Age
CA = Chronological Age
IQ = (MA/CA) x 100

Question 61

Flynn effect

Answer 61

IQ scores are increasing over time (across generations, e.g. years and decades)