Individual Differences

Question 1

Describe the historical signs of intelligence tests with Binet and Simon

Answer 1

Devised test rather than sensory skills test items for abstract reasoning skills
Successful, inexpensive, could predict school performance
Mental age - performing at average level of child of particular age on test

Question 2

What did Galton (19thC) believe intelligence came from?

Answer 2

Running in families due to genetic inheritance
To measure intelligence, used sensory processes - very bright people could have exceptional sensory acuity (RT/colour perception, sensitivity to sound etc)

Question 3

Define reliability

Answer 3

Measurement consistency
Can check using test-retest reliability
Inter-rater reliability
To check have to use correlation coefficients (degree of relationship between two variables)

Question 4

How did Terman and Stanford revise Binets test? (1916)

Answer 4

New scoring system based on intelligence

IQ - metal age divided by chronological age times 100

Question 5

Define validity

Answer 5

Ability of test to measure what it was intended to measure
Content validity - how much the content of test is representative of the area it is to cover
Criterion-related validity = tests used to predict behaviour therefore have to estimate by correlating scores on test with scores on independent criterion (other measure) of trait being assessed

Question 6

Evaluate evidence on the heredity-environment debate

Answer 6

Nature vs nurture

Intelligence is determined by genetic factors and the environment has no effect (McGurk 1975)

Question 7

What evidence is there on the twin studies?

Answer 7

Minnesota study of twins raises apart Bouchard et al (1990)
IQs highly correlated
Similarities despite being separated from an early age and raised in different environments
Identical twins reared apart more similar
Adopted children more like biological parents in intelligence

Question 8

What is group differences in intelligence?

Answer 8

Jensen (1969) ethnic differences due to heredity
African Americans score average 15 points less than caucasiens
But differences reduce over time so must be environmental causes (Williams and ceci 1997)

Question 9

What are the differences between the psychometric, information processing and triarchical approach?

Answer 9

Psychometric- analyses test scores to describe structure of intelligence
(Numerical ability, reasoning, verbal fluency, spatial visualisation, perceptual ability, memory, verbal comprehension)
Information processing- process of intelligence rather than structure, how people mentally manipulate what they learn
Triarchic theory- meta components= control performance and knowledge acquisition components. Performance components= holds information in working memory. Knowledge acquisition components= processes in acquiring and sorting new information

Question 10

What is the relationship between creativity and intelligence?

Answer 10

More creative people are more likely to have a high IQ

High intelligence, high motivation, high creativity (renzulli 2002)

Question 11

Define giftedness and mental retardation

Answer 11

Giftedness= learn in a different way, driven to master (winner 1996), give evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic who require special services not ordinarily provided by schools
Mental retardation= intelligence well below average and significant limitations in daily living skills. Retarded development in most intellectual areas but superior ability in one e.g. Music

Question 12

Define the term personality

Answer 12

Characteristic set of behaviours, attitudes, interests and capabilities
Useful to predict future behaviour
Distinguishes between people
“Consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings and actions that people demonstrate”Maddi (1989)

Question 13

How do we evaluate the different personality paradigms?

Answer 13

Their influence and importance in the field
Testability
Ability to account for psychological phenomena
Parsimoniousness
Usefulness in applied fields

Question 14

What is the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 14

Main theorist = Freud

Emphasis on dynamic, biological processes especially those taking place in the unconscious mind

Question 15

What is an instinctual drive?

Answer 15

Wishes, Desires, needs, hidden from conscious awareness

Question 16

What is “id”?

Answer 16

Desires/impulses, operates on pleasure principle

Question 17

Define ego

Answer 17

Reason, operates on reality principle

Question 18

Define superego

Answer 18

Moral consciousness, operates on idealisation principle

Question 19

Define libido

Answer 19

“Psychic energy” fuel drive (primary drives of hunger, sex, aggression, irrational impulses)

Question 20

What are the different personality stages?

Answer 20

Oral stage (birth-12/18 months)= learn by doing everything from mouth e.g. Sucking thumb and making noises 
Anal stage (12/18 months-3 years)= get praised for being potty trained and that positive reinforcement develops the personality 
Phallic stage (3-6 years)= infants desire centres upon his or her genitalia as the erogenous zone, realising that male and female are different 
Latent stage (between phallic and puberty) = little or no sexual motivation present 
Genital stage (between puberty and death) = sexual intercorse

Question 21

What can the oral stage stimulate?

Answer 21

Can lead to oral fixation in later life e.g. Nail biters and smokers

Question 22

What can the anal stage stimulate?

Answer 22

The child’s future relationship with all forms of authority. Early or harsh potty training can lead to an anal-retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy
Whereas, the anal expulsive underwent liberal toilet training routine, they like giving things away and is also messy, disorganised and rebellious

Question 23

What does the phallic stage stimulate?

Answer 23

Sets in motion the conflict between erotic attraction , resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear (Oedipus complex in boys and Electra complex in girls)
People considered it controversial (due to the boys desire for mother and to get rid of father
Girls= penis envy (creates tension for mother but then represses feelings and adopts female gender role

Question 24

What does the latency stage stimulate?+

Answer 24

Most sexual impulses are repressed and sexual energy can be sublimated towards school work and hobbies

Question 25

What does the genital stage stimulate?

Answer 25

Adolescent experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in our 20s

Question 26

Define free association

Answer 26

Psychoanalytic therapy where the client is asked to freely share thoughts, random words and anything else that comes to mind regardless of how coherent or appropriate their thoughts are

Question 27

Define trait

Answer 27

Stable sources of individual differences that characterise a person

Question 28

What are the main points of Allports theory?

Answer 28

Person dispositions= unique to the individual
But everyone has common traits
Cardinal trait= traits that are dominent e.g. Everything that person does would relate back to that trait e.g. Scrooge
Central trait= have 5-10 of those, everyone tends to have them and how we tend to describe people e.g. Kindness
Secondary trait= what a person generally does across a range of situations( might have one or two of these as they aren’t that important)

Question 29

What are the main points for Cattell theory?

Answer 29

Factor analysis= produces a matrix on how factors correlate with each other (for measuring underlying personality)
OCEAN= neuroticism, openness, agreeableness, consciousness, extraversion
Some biological basis to personality
Two levels of a trait (surface level and source - what is underlying that)

Question 30

What are the main points for Eysenck theory?

Answer 30

Personality came from genetics
unstable= moody, likely to show conditioned responses (problems in the past)
Introverts= easy conditioned by punishment, chronically over aroused trying to get things down (extraverts are the opposite seeking stimulation)
Psychoticism= lacking in feeling and empathy (e.g. Schizophrenia)

Question 31

What is factor analysis?

Answer 31

Statistical procedure for identifying common elements or factors underlying personality, reduces a large number of factors to a smaller set of combined ones