Individual Differences Flashcards
Personality definition
The sum of an individual’s characteristics which make them unique
Three theories of personality
Trait, social learning, interactionist
Trait theory description
Inherited or genetically predetermined qualities
Traits consistent in all situations
Personality or behaviour is generalised and predictable
Two interpretations of trait theory
Narrow band approach (Type A, Type B)
Eysenck (introvert/extrovert, stable/neurotic)
Type A personality
Works fast
Prone to excessive anxiety
Likes to take control
Highly competitive
Strong desire to succeed
Type B personality
Works more slowly
Can relax/less prone to stress
Does not like to be in control
Less competitive
Lacks a desire to succeed
Extrovert
Outgoing
Confident with other people
Low levels of internal arousal
Needs stimulation through external sources
Introvert
Inward focus
Prefer isolation
May lack confidence in social situations
High levels of internal arousal
Doesn’t require external stimulation
Stable
Has a predictable temperament
Moods are likely to be consistent
Appear calm and relaxed
Likely to be low in anxiety
Realistic and logical perception
Neurotic
Unpredictable in temperament
Moods are likely to be inconsistent
Prone to worry and high anxiety
Unrealistic or illogical perception of situations
Positives of trait theory
Personality/behaviour can be predicted
There is evidence of personality being influenced by genetics
Negatives of trait theory
Not just genetics that determines personality
Doesn’t account for how personality seems to change in different environments
Identical twins brought up in different environments do not demonstrate the same personality
Social learning theory description
Copying the behaviour of others
- more likely if model is significant or behaviour is reinforced
Behaviour is learnt from environment
Predictable if in the same situation/environment
Positives of social learning theory
Bobo doll experiment
Evidence for aspects of personality learned by copying
Disadvantages of social learning theory
Too simplistic
Siblings/identical twins don’t always have the same personality when brought up in the same environment
If true we would all have the same personalities as our role models
Interactionist theory description
Interaction or relationship between personality traits and the environment
Behaviour changing to the demands of the situation or environment
Combination of trait and social learning
Responses emerge from combination of personality traits and the environment
Unpredictable behaviour
Advantages of interactionist theory
Takes into account both traits and environment
Explains unpredictable behaviour and why people in the same environment behave differently
Disadvantages of interactionist theory
Focuses on society
Does not take into account individual psychology
Not objective
Anxiety definition
Negative emotional state associated with feelings of stress, overarousal or worry
Two types of anxiety
State and trait
State anxiety
An individual’s immediate but temporary level of anxiety in a particular situation
Trait anxiety
Global/general predisposition to be anxious
Two different areas of response to anxiety
Somatic and cognitive
Somatic response definition
Physical response
Somatic response example
Increase heart rate, adrenaline, headaches
Cognitive response defintion
Thoughts or worries about abilities to complete a task successfully
Cognitive response example
Worry, self doubt, negative thougths
Characteristics of optimum level of arousal/anxiety
Aggression and power
Increase confidence
Increase motivation
Increase concentration
Increase energy levels
Drive/determination to succeed
Increase chance of success
Individual zone of optimal functioning definition
The level of stress/arousal that contributes to an athlete being at peak performance level
Athlete/skill that would have a low zone of optimal functioning
Fine skills - snooker
Introvert
Cognitive stage of learning
Athlete/skill that would have a moderate zone of optimal functioning
Sport with combination of gross and fine - cricket
Extrovert/introvert
Associate stage of learning
Athlete/skill that would have a high zone of optimal functioning
Gross skill - Weightlifting
Extroverts
Autonomous stage of learning
Aggression definition
Any behaviour that is intended to harm another individual by physical or verbal means outside the rules of the sport
Four theories of aggression
Instinct theory
Social learning theory
Frustration-Aggression hypothesis
Aggressive cue hypothesis
Instinct theory
Proposed by Freud
‘Aggression is inevitable as it is genetically inherited’
Aggression is predictable
Aggressive trait - death instinct
Protective trait - life instinct
Positives of instinct theory
Explains why people get aggressive
Simple to understand
Negatives of instinct theory
Too simple
Identical twin experiment
Social Learning theory
Proposed by Bandura
Aggression is learnt through copying others, particularly role models
More likely to be repeated if reinforced by a role model
More likely if social norm
Positives of social learning theory
Simple to understand
Takes into account the environment
Negatives of social learning theory
Too simple
Everyone would be identical to their role models if it was true
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
Frustration caused by the environment blocking goals of the performer triggers aggression
Stages of frustration-aggression hypothesis
Stimulus -> frustration -> aggression
Success causes catharsis
Unsuccessful or punishment loops back to frustration
Positives of frustration-aggression hypothesis
Clear links shown between stages
Catharsis stage which allows for recovery
Frustration can continue
Negatives of frustration-aggression hypothesis
Goal blocked doesn’t always lead to frustration
Personality/situation could change it
Aggression can be seen after catharsis which contradicts
Aggressive cue hypothesis
Frustration leads to increased arousal which potentialises aggression
Stages of aggressive cue hypothesis
Frustration -> Increased arousal
If there is a presence of an aggressive cue, aggression will be more likely
Aggressive cues
Weapons/objects
Nature of sport
Place/environment
People/opponents
Nature of event
Perceived unfairness/officials
Witnessing violence
Positives of aggressive cue hypothesis
Cue leads to aggression
Increased arousal can lead to improved performance
Negatives of aggressive cue hypothesis
People get aggressive without cues
Doesn’t account for catharsis
Attitude defintion
Predisposition to act in a particular way towards something or someone in a specific situation
Learned, typical response based on a belief about an attitude object
Factors leading to formation of attitudes
Past experience
Role models
Social group/peers
Religion
Education
Cultural factors
Media
Three aspects of the triadic model
Cognitive
Affective
Behavioural
Cognitive
Beliefs or thoughts a person has about the attitude object
Affective
Emotional aspects
Good feeling or not
Enjoyment will produce a positive emotional feeling
Behavioural
Response or behaviour towards attitude object
If cognitive and affective are positive the response will be positive and vice versa
Methods of changing attitudes
Persuasive communication
Cognitive dissonance
Persuasive communication
Changing an attitude using verbal persuasion
4 pillars of persuasive communication
Persuader
Message
Recipient
Situation
Persuasive communication - persuader
Needs to have high status/be a role model
- coach/parent
Persuasive communication - message
Message needs to be accurate, good quality, relevant, believable, well presented and positive
Persuasive communication - recipient
Easily changed attitude if the recipient wants to change it (understands why the change is needed)
Persuasive communication - situation
Recipient must feel comfortable, it must be given at the right time (after current attitude has had a negative effect or the new one has had a positive effect), other persuaders will improve likelihood, as will if the social group holds the new attitude
Cognitive dissonance definition
The discomfort or disharmony an individual feels when they hold two opposing ideas
Stages of cognitive dissonance in changing an attitude
Emotional discomfort through imbalance in triadic model
Changing cognitive or affective component to match
Brings components in line - removes discomfort
The more uncomfortable the dissonance, the greater the desire to change the attitude
Motivation definition
The drive, energy and effort an individual applies to achieve a goal
Two types of motivation
Extrinsic and intrinsic
Intrinsic motivation
Drive form within a person the perform a task or activity for its own sake
Performance driven by pursuit of personal satisfaction and challenge
Uses and effects of intrinsic motivation
Good for performers of all experience
Success brings high level of personal satisfaction
Helps performer set personal goals
Leads to long lasting results
Helps performer to sustain interest and continue participation
Extrinsic motivation
Drive to perform a task or activity in order to achieve a tangible reward
Performance driven by external factors
Uses and effects of extrinsic motivation
Good for learners in cognitive stage
Provides clear evidence of success often through tangible reward
Helps recipient to gain status within peer group
Effectiveness is short lived
Tends to lose impact if opportunity for reward is taken away (NOT SUSTAINABLE)
Arousal definition
The level of excitement that a person feels before, during and after a sports event
Two types of arousal
Somatic and cognitive
Three arousal theories
Drive theory, inverted U theory, catastrophe theory
Drive theory description
As arousal increases so does the quality of performance (in a linear fashion)
Stages of learning in drive theory
Experienced athletes perform better as arousal levels increase
Beginners perform worse with high levels of arousal
Strengths of drive theory
Simple to understand
Clearly show relationship between arousal and performance
Reliable by relating arousal to dominant response
Accurate representation for professionals/extroverts (Team GB at London 2012)
More likely to be accurate for gross/simple skills
Weaknesses of drive theory
Too simplistic
Doesn’t take into account individual differences
Doesn’t explain decline in performance at high arousal
Doesn’t explain professionals performing well at low arousal
Doesn’t acknowledge different types of arousal
Inverted U theory description
Under-arousal causes poor performance, performance increases as arousal does up to a optimum point or arousal leading to peak performance
Over-arousal causes deterioration in performance
Strengths of inverted U theory
More realistic
Optimum point of arousal seen in most sports performers
Simple to understand and apply
Optimal point can shift depending on individual differences
Weaknesses of inverted U theory
Too simple
Doesn’t consider different types of arousal
Too even distribution of curve
Performance drastically drops if over-aroused
Catastrophe theory description
As somatic arousal increases, quality of performance improves
Optimal performance will only be achieved is cognitive arousal is kept low
High cognitive and high somatic causes dramatic drop in performance (catastrophe)
After catastrophe, performance can be regained if cognitive arousal is kept low
If arousal increases after catastrophe, performance will deteriorate
Strengths of catastrophe theory
Realistic explanation for poor/out of character performance at a big event
Shows sudden drop which is more likely than gradual decline
Relationship of cognitive and somatic is shown
Shows possibility of recovery with low cognitive arousal
Weaknesses of catastrophe theory
Not all performers experience a sudden drop in performance
Optimum arousal may not be a midpoint
Doesn’t take into account the type of skill, individual differences, or level of performer
Complicated to understand and apply
