indirect and direct effects Flashcards
( DIRECT EFFECTS )
Packard
the work of Packard and is also known as the ‘magic bullet theory’, (the media is like a bullet penetrates the audience). Packard’s work was primarily directed at the impact of advertising. large organisations having control and influence, eg newspapers- swaying voting habits
( DIRECT EFFECTS )
Newson
argued that children’s exposure to media violence has a desensitising effect and that, as a result, they are more likely to commit acts of violence in reality if they have been exposed to violence in the media. Newson theorised that the effects of media violence on children were more subtle and gradual. She argued that continued exposure to violence in films over several years ‘desensitised’ children and teenagers to violence and that they came to see violence as a norm, and as a possible way of solving problems.
Examples include - James Bulger killers - There was a theory that Child’s Play 3 the film could have had a major influence on Bulger’s murder, due to the similarities with specific scenes.
( DIRECT EFFECTS )
Bandura
BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT SUMMARY:
Bandura showed three groups of children real, film and cartoon examples of a bobo doll being beaten with a mallet. A further (control) group of children were shown no violence…
The children were then taken to a room with lots of toys, but then ‘frustrated’ by being told the toys were not for them. They were then taken to a room with a mallet and a bobo doll, and the children who had seen the violent examples imitated the violence by beating the doll themselves, while the children who had seen no violence did not beat the doll.
( DIRECT EFFECTS )
Anderson et al
Conducted research into the direct effect of music on an audience. They studied the effect of violent song lyrics on the attitudes and emotions of 500 college students who were asked to listen to songs with violent, non-violent and ‘humorous’ lyrics. Their research indicated a clear pattern of increased aggressive thoughts and feelings of hostility following on from listening to violent song lyrics.
Examples include - Anderson et al analysed the song lyrics of “Shoot ‘Em Up” by Cypress Hill and “Finger Lickin’ Good by The Beastie Boys.
After listening to the songs, the students performed various word-association tasks to test whether they linked more non-aggressive words with aggressive lyrics. They also measured their feelings of hostility. Anderson et al’s results indicate a relationship between violent song lyrics and increased aggressive thoughts and feelings of hostility. They also found that even humorous violent songs did increase aggression levels, in comparison non-violent songs.
( DIRECT EFFECTS )
Hall et al
Conducted research into the direct effects of sexualised song lyrics, on young audiences. They looked at the lyrics of the “Billboard Hot 100” in the years 1959, 1969, 1979, 1989, 1999, and 2009. They found a significant increase in sexualised content across this era and found that there was “an enormous difference between lyrics from Ray Charles or Elvis and what we saw with Lady Gaga and Britney Spears”.
Examples include - Blurred Lines the song was criticised for promoting a worrying attitude towards sex and consent… “You know you want it”, “Talk about getting blasted, I hate these blurred lines”
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( DIRECT EFFECTS )
Hardcastle et al
Hardcastle et al - Also examined the direct effects of song lyrics in the media, however they examined positive references to alcohol within lyrics. Similar to Hall et al they found a direct effect between the two – Hardcastle et al claimed that ‘the exposure of young people to alcohol in the media is a major concern given its potential impact on drinking behaviours’.
( DIRECT EFFECTS )
Fesbach and Singer
Found that screen violence can actually provide a safe outlet for people’s aggressive tendencies. This is known as catharsis. They suggest that watching an exciting film releases aggressive energy into safe outlets as the viewers immerse themselves in the action.
( DIRECT EFFECTS )
Young
Argues that there are two responses to viewing violence in the media:
- That seeing the effects of violence and especially the pain and suffering that it causes to the victim and their families, may make us more aware of its consequences and so less inclined to commit violent acts in this sense it has a sensitising effect. Therefore may make people more aware and responsible so that they avoid getting involved in violence.
- However they also found that if violence is viewed in a more permissible way, the content and behaviour may become more desensitising.
( INDIRECT EFFECTS )
Katz and Lazarsfeld two-step flow model
Suggest that personal relationships and conversations with significant others, such as family members, friends, teachers and work colleagues, result in people modifying or rejecting media messages rather than just passively accepting it. They argue that social networks are usually dominated by what they call ‘opinion leaders’, i.e. people of influence whom others in the network look up to and listen to. They state that these people usually have strong ideas about a range of social issues and situations. Moreover, these opinion leaders are generally made up of people who expose themselves to more and different types of media and form an opinion on their content e.g. those who read newspapers as well as watch different genres of television channels and programmes. As a result of this opinion leaders become seen as ‘experts’ in specific matters and their interpretations are then passed on to other members of their social circle. People are choosing what to think based on discussion and interaction with an opinion leader. Katz and Lazarsfeld suggest that media messages go through two steps or stages before reaching its audiences (hence two-step flow!):
STEP 1 - The opinion leader is exposed to the media content / messages
STEP 2 - Those who respect the opinion leader internalise their interpretation of that content and transmit these messages forward
( INDIRECT EFFECTS )
‘drip drip’ effect
This is another indirect approach that looks at how the media effects attitudes and values depending on the cultural background of the audience. For example gender, social class, ethnicity and age. This model (and other indirect models) can also be known as the ‘drip drip effect’ as rather than having a more immediate effect (like the direct effect theories), it suggests that the more an ideology is “dripped” into society by the media, the more people believe it and accept it as true.
It suggests that the mass media gradually influences the audience over a period of time.
It is a slow and subtle process which gradually shapes people’s common sense ideas, assumptions and their everyday view of the world.
The Cultural Effects Model suggests that over time our norms are changed by viewing certain media content.
For example, if we keep viewing violence our view of violence may be that it is more and more acceptable as we become desensitised.
Similarly, prolonged exposure to poverty or famine might create ‘compassion fatigue’ where we begin to empathise with situations less sincerely.
( INDIRECT EFFECTS )
marxist cultural effects model
The Marxist Cultural Effects Model sees the media as a very powerful ideological influence that is mainly concerned with transmitting capitalist values and norms.
( DIRECT EFFECTS )
HYPODERMIC SYRINGE MODEL
The Hypodermic Syringe Model is linked with the work of Packard and is also known as the ‘magic bullet theory’, illustrating that media is like a syringe that ‘injects’ its messages into the audience
( INDIRECT EFFECTS )
marxist - Gramsci
Argues that media content contains strong ideological messages that reflect the values of those who own, control and produce the media.
They argue that the long-term effect of such media content is that the values of the rich and powerful come to be unconsciously shared by most people – people come to believe in values such as:
‘Happiness is about possessions and money’,
‘Being a celebrity is really important’ etc.
The idea that the values of the rich and powerful become unconsciously shared is what Gramsci calls ‘hegemony’ – This refers to the notion that ruling class, capitalist ideologies are presented as common sense in the media. Gramsci does note that the audience must consent to these ideas and that the media has an important role when gaining this consent; which is initially difficult to gain and maintain (due to the idea that the proletariat lifestyle contradicts these messages). This is another reason that The Cultural Effects Model can be described as a ‘drip drip model’.
