INDG 1220 Midterm Flashcards
define Indigenous
umbrella term used in canada, refers to first nations, metis, and inuit peoples. Safest term. Inhabited or existed on their land since time immemorial
define first nations
Indigenous people distinct from metis or inuit. Term originates in the 1970s and refers to those are are legally considered “indians” in the constitution Act 1982
Nehiyaw, dakota (assiniboine), anishinaabe, anishinininew, and dene
define metis
Refers to descendants of those with mixed ancestry between first nations and european settlers (mainly french and scottish) however they are a distinct group of people with their own language, culture, and territories
Official language - Michif
According to metis national council, metis means a person who self-identifies as metis, is distinct from other indigenous peoples is of historic metis nation ancestry and who is accepted by the metis nation
define inuit
Refers to indigenous peoples whose roots stem from inuit Nunangat, also known as Canadian arctic. Translates to “the place where inuit live
Inuit translates to “the people” in inuktitut. Therefore to say “inuit peoples” is redundant, translates to “the People Peoples”
define land acknowledgement
a formal statement recognizing the unique and enduring relationships that exists between indigenous peoples and their traditional territories
Express gratitude to those who reside here and to honour the indigenous people who have lived and worked on this land historically and presently
why is indigenous peoples pluralized?
indigenous peoples are diverse
when is acceptable to use term “Indian”
Put it in quotation marks
Citing books, art, historical documents etc.
In discussion -> needed for context
Relating it back to legal or constitutional subject matter (Indian Act)
Inuit Nunangat is compromised of which 4 regions?
- Inuvialuit (NW territories)
- Nunavik (northern quebec)
- Nunatsiavut (labrador)
- Nunavut
Who governs Red River Metis?
Manitoba metis federation
Metis national council: sask, ont, BC, alb
why is it important to know terminology of Indigenous peoples in canada?
cultural awareness
respect and recognition - shows respect to indigenous culture, identities, histories.
education - empowering
perservation of language
effective communication
building relationship
5 facts about indigenous studies
- educational program dedicated to surveying indigenous culture
- grounded by diverse ancestral knowledges
- stems from history, anthropology, colonial studies, ethnohistories
- relatively new field - emerged in 1960s
- places indigenous sovereignty at center of goals and trajectories
what does interdisciplinarity mean
an approach that integrates concepts, theories, and methodologies from multiple academic disciplines to address complex issues or topics
- multiple fields - collaboration of ideas and insights
why is interdisciplinarity important to indigenous studies?
indigenous histories is more than just what is written on a paper. It’s oral history, political, geographical, artistic experiences that shape indigenous peoples
Ex. teachings painted on birch bark scrolls, governance systems in beadwork, language reflects sounds of environment etc.
what does resurgence mean in context of indigenous peoples?
Process of awakening from a dormant period. Awakening
Turning inwards, builds strength within indigenous communities, decenters eurocentric scholarship, divests from authority of the Canadian settler state
reframes indigenous education as valid
what is the allegory of the “Vanishing Indian”
a narrative that portrays indigenous peoples as a disappearing or dying race
-emerged in 19 century-> depicting them as relics of past faded away by colonization and assimilation
Origins of vanishing indian
began when colonial attitudes viewed indigenous peoples as obstacles to progression - primitive -> naturally decline
-justified last dispossession and assimilation
Who is Edward curtis? what is he known for?
American photographer and ethnographer - best known for documenting indigenous peoples in early 20 century
- monumental project: “the north american indian” - photos of details of cultures and ways of life
how did edward contribute to allegory of “vanishing indian”
his portrayal of indigenous peoples emphasized traditional aspects of their culture- downplaying present day aspects
- reinforcing idea they are on brink of extinction
What are some ways that Indigenous peoples can regain control over their histories and
representation?
indigenous owned archives and museums
place importance on oral histories and community lead historical narratives
language revitalization
validity in indigenous mapping
6 cultural areas
arctic
subarctic
northwest
plateau
plains
eastern woodlands
climate, 3 indigenous groups, resources, ways of life pre-colonization of Arctic
climate: cold months: -30->40, high of -10->20
resources: seals, walrus, caribou, fish
indigenous groups: inuit
ways of life: semi-nomatic groups, used igloos and tents for shelter, hunting and fishing central to culture
climate, 3 indigenous groups, resources, ways of life pre-colonization of Subarctic
climate: cold, wet low of -40 in winter, high of 30 summers
resources: caribou, fish, moose
indigenous groups: Nehiyaw (Cree), Beothuck, Innu, Thchno (Dogrib)
ways of life: canoes in summer, sleds in winter, kinship networks, cooperation, seasonal hunting
climate, 3 indigenous groups, resources, ways of life pre-colonization of Northwest
climate: warmer, rarely below freezing in winter, coastal
3 indigenous groups: Tlingit, haida, tsimshian, kwakwaka’wakw
resources: salmon, herring and shellfish, sea lions, whales
ways of life: social status ranked based on how close they were to the chief, potlatch ceremonies, events building alliences
climate, 3 indigenous groups, resources, ways of life pre-colonization of Plateau
climate: flat area between mountains, hot dry summers, cold winters
3 indigenous groups: Secwepemc (shuswap), Wet’suwet’en (carrier), sylix (okanagan) ktunaxa (ketenai)
resources: hunt, fish, gather plants
ways of life: communal - decisions made by chiefs
climate, 3 indigenous groups, resources, ways of life pre-colonization of Plains
climate: ?
3 indigenous groups: siksika (blackfoot) Nakota (Assiniboine) plains cree
resources: millions of buffalo
ways of life: independent groups advised, not ruled, by chiefs - cheifs decision required approval from elders, traveled with dogs
climate, 3 indigenous groups, resources, ways of life pre-colonization of Woodlands
climate: filled with forests, great lakes/maritime (located)
3 indigenous groups: tionontati (petun) Ouendat (huran) Saulteaux (ojibwa) Anishinabek (algonquin), Mi’kmaw (micmac)
resources: hunting fishing farming - crops
ways of life: democratic body (6 nations or haudenosaunee)
all chiefs equally ranked - equally represented from all nations.
explain why trade between Indigenous groups was important (pre-colonization)
trade was a social and spiritual endeavor developing marial connection and alliances, relationship building
development of tech (clothing, footwear)
knowledge sharing
difference between indigenous and European commerce
indigenous: relational ties and tech advancements
european: resource extraction, wealth, hoarding, capitalism
4 major alliances between Indigenous groups from 700 CE onwards
- confederacies around the great lakes (haudenosaunee)
- Wabanaki confederacy and beothuk of newfoundland
- cree and iron confederacy
- pacific northwest (trans cordilleran)
Haudenosaunee confederacy (who, what, where, when (approximately), why)
who: Oondaga, Onyota’a:ka (oneida) Kanien’keha:ka (mohawk) Gayogoho:no (cayuka) seneca
what: oldest participatory democracy on earth, nations have own councils- chiefs chosen by clan mothers
where: basin of great lakes, east of huron to gulf of saint lawrence
when: 800-1142 ish beginnings
why: use to reduce threat of war
wendat confederacy (who, what, where, when (approximately), why)
who: attignawantans, attigeenongnahacs, arendarhonons, tahontaenrats ataronchronons
what promote mutual defense trade among member nations
where: lake ontario, east coast of lake huron (present day ontario)
when: late 16th early 17th century
why: formed out of necessity for cooperation and protection against external threats
- sedentary life with agriculture
- used longhouses for families
- allied against haudenosaunee who were at war
Wabanaki Confederacy (who, what, where, when (approximately), why)
who: 5 Angloquian- abenaki, penobscot, passamaquoddy, mi’kmaq, wolastoqiyik (makiseet)
what: maintained abundance resources from sea fishing, forging, agriculture
where: state of main through maritimes
When: 1600s
why: ensured large trading network and alliances
Iron confederacy (iron alliance) (who, what, where, when (approximately), why)
who: Nehiyaw (plains cree), nakota oyadebi (assiniboine), anishinaabe and metis
what: largest associated with any one indigenous peoples
where: rockies, lowlands around hudsons bay
when: late 1700s
why: resist american encroachment, political and military alliance
Trans-Cordilleran West (who, what, where, when (approximately), why)
who: 30 indigenous cultures
what: diverse ecosystem, mountainous, ideal living conditions
where: mountainous range at western edge of prairies (pacific cordillera)) (boundaries always shifted from conflict)
when: 1000s (smallpox late 1700s)
why: abundant natural resources, crucial for trade, agriculture
7 sacred laws + animal given to them
buffalo = respect
eagle = love
bear = courage
big foot = honesty
beaver = wisdom
wolf = humanity
turtle = truth
which indigenous group attributed to seven sacred laws
anishinaabe (ojiwe or cheppewa)
timeline of confederacies:
haudenosaunee: 1450s (active)
wendat: pre-1600s (decimated)
wabanaki: 1600s (active)
iron: late 1700s (no longer - though some tribes)
trans cordilleran: 1000s (tribes exist - not the same)
define First contacts
initial interactions between indigenous and europeans (11-20th century)
- often focused on differences
- lead to significant cultural changes, trade, conflict
-range from cooperative to violent
-indigenous had upper hand in negotiations - carried knowledge of how to survive
define difference (indigenous context)
- indigenous greeted europeans like visitors - cautious - didn’t see them as gods
- europeans looked sickly to indigenous
- europeans described indigenous through european standards (values, social order, gender roles, tech, dress)
define colonialism (indigenous context)
-policies of a country seeking to retain full or partial political control over other peoples, territory, with aim of economic dominance (control of labour, resource extraction, trade)
define settler colonialism (indigenous context)
- type of colonialism that functions through replacement of indigenous nations and their rights.
- permanent settlement of invasive settler accompanied by prejudicial and racist ideology on why one people have the right to claim resources over another
define papal bull (indigenous context) (1400s)
Dum Diversas, Inter Caetera, Romanus Pontifex
- dum: granted christians right to take “pagans” as slaves (lead to transatlantic slave trade)
- inter: stated lands west of line drawn would be claimed by spain
- romanus: outlined justification to take land because “heathens” weren’t using it
(groundwork for doctrine of discovery)
define terra nullius (indigenous context)
-“nobodies land” (doctrine of discovery was based on)
-latin -> empty, barren, uninhabited
- indigenous seen as “uncivilized and “primative” because of their differences- seen as unable to govern own territories
“lead by own lusts and sensuality”
royal commission on aboriginal peoples (who what where when why)
who:
what: created a guide government policies to create better life conditions for indigenous - investigate relationship between indigenous and canadian government - propose solutions
where:
when: late 1900s
why: formed in response to major indigenous human rights issues.
doctrine of discover (who what where when why)
-set of international principles by various popes that enforced christian authority over non christians
-justification for colonial expansion based on lands not under christian authority lacked authority
- christian sovereignty
-major impact on policies like indian act, reserve system, residential schools, sixties scoop
-displacement of indigenous
jacques cartiers 3 voyages (who what where when why) (1500s)
voyage 1: explored coasts of PEI, NB, reluctant to trade with Mi’kmaq and tried to attack them, eventually traded tools for furs, freindly encounter with haudenosaunee from stadacona, cross, took chiefs sons with him back
voyage 2: returned with chiefs sons, first sailing up st. lawrence, returned to stadacona during winter, 25 men died, had to leave ship behind, took 10 stadacona with him including the chief, 9 of them died in england before next voyage
voyage 3: cartier sent back to establish settlement to ensure frances claim to land, not welcomed by stadacona, with no help from them, at least 35 french died/were killed. he returned to france with what he though were diamonds - deemed worthless, big impact on mapping out land and giving names (canada)
how does the arrival of christopher columbus affect colonization
- initiated colonization of europeans
- supprted by papal bulls
- lead to establishment of colonial colonies
- introduced diseases to indigenous
who is john cabot and what were his contributions to first contact
italian explorer
- first known landing of european since norse people
- reported flourishing country - claimed he reached “asia”
-first voyage became basis of english claim to NA
-never returned from second trip
who is jacques cartier and what were his contribution to first contact
french explorer
- first european to explore st. lawrence river
- one of the first europeans to attempt settlement in canada
who is chief donnacona and what is he most known for
chief of stadacona, sons travelled to france by cartier, was killed in france, haudenosaunee
who is samuel de champlain and what were his contributions to first contact in canada
french explorer “father of new france”
- founded city of quebec (first permanent french settlement), established fur trading post near st. lawrence river, allied with innu - joined raids against haudenosaunee, part of ongoing wars between haudenosaunee and wendat
samuel de champlain - what is he known for? who is he allied with?
allied with innu - joined raids against haudenosaunee
- part of ongoing wars between haudenosaunee and wendat
- contributions curcial to early history of canada
the fur trade (who, what, where, when, why)
- united europeans and indigenous through mutual interests (one thing they shared)
- extensive trading - furs for metal tools, firearms etc
- where: st lawrence vally, great lakes region (french), northern plains and rocky mountains (british) (eventually traveled west)
- when: established 1600s - expanded early 17 century, 1800s: HBC NWC
why: economical demand, alliances, cultural exchange
hudsons bay company (HBC) (who, what, where, when, why)
who: the english, prince rupert (cousin of king charles II) first governor
what: oldest + longest running company in NA, focussed on trading furs (beaver), monopoly
where: ruperts land (around hudsons bay - expanded west)
when: established 1600s
why: capatalize on fur trade in responce to high demand
Northwest company (who, what, where, when, why)
who: managed by Highland Scots
what: trading center, rivaled HBC
where: montreal area
when: 17-1800s
why: fur trade
development of metis nation (who, what, where, when, why)
- fur trade cooperation
- french NWC adopted indigenous ways of life - married indigenous (main foundation of metis)
haudenosaunee war (who, what, where, when, why)
who: french (with Mi’kmaq, wendat, and odaawaa) vs haudenosaunee with british
what: conflicts including territorial disputes and fight for control over fur trade
where: great lakes region, st. lawrence river valley, quebec
when: 1700s
why: compitition for land, alliances, fur trade
mesquakie war (who, what, where, when, why)
fox wars
who: meskwaki (known as fox) allies with haudenosaunee, against french
what: series of conflicts between meskwaki and europeans - french won from forest fighting and great lakes were less stable in alliances. made them slaves
where: great lakes
when: 1700s
why: they controlled river system and french wanted it for access to trading partners
seven years war (who, what, where, when, why)
who: French, english, indigenous
what: first imperial conflict to start in colonies instead of europe.
when: mid 1700s
where: europe and north america (great lakes and quebec)
why: control over colonies and trade
new france handed over to british - ended war
resulted in royal proclamation, war of 1812, indian act
5 facts about french expansion in canada during 16-1700s
- king louis XIV made new france a province of france and appointed governor
- new france = shores of St. lawrence river
- troops sent to subdue haudenosaunee then focus on building colony
- king granted large pieces of land to landlords to rent to habitants
- late 1600s - more than 6000 french lived in new france
french expansion - who were they allied with?
allied with wendat and innu
5 facts about british expansion during 16-1700s
- when wendat disappeared, changed geographic concentration of fur trade, more influence of british
- fur trade moved north and west, paving way for HBC
- HBC allied with Nehiyaw (cree)
- french also allied with cree
- resulted in various indigenous nations accepting european interests and alliances
british expansion - who were they allied with
allied with cree (nehiyaw)
why was there increasing tension between french and indigenous peoples after the death of chief donnacona?
- donnacona was a respected leader - died in europe
- donnacona was key in fostering relations between french and indigenous
- cultural misunderstanding
- resource competition
6 major effects of fur trade (3 facts about each effect)
christianization
intermarriage
armed conflict
over trapping
disease
expansion of european society
3 facts about christianization
- christian missionaries sought relationship with indigenous to convert them
- wendat accepted jesuit priests in communities (eased trade relations with europeans)
- early relationships between missionaries and indigenous peoples would result in rejection of traditional beliefs to “liberate their souls”
3 facts about intermarriage
- cooperative nature of fur trade resulted in marriage of european men and indigenous women
- europeans need to follow indigenous customs in order to marry
- lead to development of new nation: metis (formally recognized in 1982)
3 facts about armed conflict
- fur trade caused conflict among some first nations to protect trade interests
- later first nations fought in european conflicts to protect own lands
- indigenous allies regarded as strong warriors
3 facts about over trapping
- for centuries indigenous people trapped animals sustainably, fur trade made it too much
- animal populations fell, couldn’t sustain trade let alone basic food needs of indigenous - led to indigenous relying on europeans for survival
- buffalo wiped out - forced metis to abandon traditional ways of life
3 facts about disease
- europeans carried diseases that indigenous couldn’t handle - no immunity
- disease transmitted to indigenous through fur trading posts
- smallpox, influenza, measles - killed thousands of indigeous
3 facts about expansion of european society
- 18th century - fur trade extended to prairies
- NWC established fur trade posts at fort gibraltar
-NWC tended to trade using indigenous gift exchange practices and committed strongly to intermarriage - by 19 century thousands of metis
what were the relationship/outcome of HBC and NWC
- bitter rivals, several confrontations
- NWC ended up merging with HBC because lack of profit
- HBC monopolized
how were inuit impacted by fur trade
- fur trade brought european tools to inuit for hunting
- most converted to christianity
- kept ways of life
- safe because so far north
- ended up losing ways of life late 1900s
how did fur trade contribute to spreading of diseases
european diseases indigenous couldn’t handle
through fur trading posts
what types of fur bearing animals were traded during fur trade. how were they beneficial to europeans
beaver: pelts for hats (fashion), fur for warmth
buffalo hides (clothing, trade)
otter, deer, bear, fox
beneficial for warmth, fashion
what objects were given to indigenous peoples during fur trade
metal tools - knives, fishing hooks and traps
weapons - firearms, ammunition
cooking utensils
alcohol
why was the haudenosaunee war hard for both indigenous and europeans
- haudenosaunee believed killed warriers needed to be avenged before entering afterlife
- complex alliances - shifting
- economic costs -> drained resources and strain for european powers engaged in wars
strategies used by haudenosaunee during war
- guerrilla tactics -> strategy of speed and surprise. coming from all sides
what happened to wendat after haudenosaunee war
- suffered territorial losses
- alliance with french that put a target on them for later years
describe how slavery was introduced during mesquakie war
most captives were domestic servants - farm labour + skilled trade
french considered mesquakie as property, soldiers
who conquered during seven years war and how did it impact indigenous peoples
british were victorious
- lead to royal proclamation, war of 1812, and indian act
the royal proclamation of 1763 (who, what, where, when, why)
declared all surrendered “indian” lands go to british crown - would grant recognation of “indian title to land”
- forbade settlers from claiming land from indigneous occupants unless first bought by crown
- established system for former french colonies (that british won in 7 years war)
- strived to separate indian lands from european colonies
- recognized indigenous living within british territories
peace and friendship treaties (who, what, where, when, why)
- first treaties
- little to do with land, more with rights to hunt, fish, establish friendly relationships
“aboriginal” or “indian” title (who, what, where, when, why)
- legal terminology of the day
- rights to occupy and use - not own
- british crown underlying sovereignty
- meant to prevent “unjust settlement” slowing pace of colonization to keep peace
war of 1812 (who, what, where, when, why)
- viewed as continuation of american war of independence
- between americans and british
bagot commission of 1842-44)(who, what, where, when, why)
- created survey and boundaries of reserves
- all title deeds must be registered
- recognized governments obligations under royal proclamation of 1763
- indigenous peoples taught land management and provided resources like livestock
- recommended indian boarding schools - lead to residential system
- set up for indian act
after british became leading european influence in NA, how did it impact indigenous peoples?
- indigenous peoples lost bargaining positions between 2 rival powers
-establishment of proclamations
who was pontiac , what was he known for? what was his spiritual vision that he was driven by
- odaawaa war chief -> influential chiefs to challenge british
- spiritual vision urged his people to abstain from contact with europeans and drive british back to sea
-early manifestation of resistance movements by indigenous
-tried negotiating agreements with british - assassinated (asserted will by force rather than consulting community)
who is general amherst and why is he considered a war criminal
- war criminal (england)
- planed genocide - distributing smallpox infested blankets to odaawaa and anishinaabe nations
why would settlers in colonies become resentful of royal proclamation?
- resentful they couldn’t purchase lands and had to go through crown first rather than local colonial governors
who is tecumseh and what were his contributions to the pan-indigenous movement?
forefront of pan-indigenous movement
- sided with british (lesser of 2 evils)
- challenged cessions of indigenous lands by americans
- led indigenous forces to victory over americans
- brother tenskwatawa - prophet
- had more than 30 indigenous nations follow him, not as practical after his death
how did the war of 1812 end
treaty of ghent signed in 1814 - close off war
-> restored situation back to what it was before (no territorial gains for either)
- didn’t address indigenous - long term consequences
how were indigenous peoples impacted by aftermath of war of 1812
put indigenous peoples at serious disadvantage because their alliances with europeans as a bargaining tool was now gone
- ceased to be seen as allies and instead seen as a problem that needed to be eradicated
- model villages - conform indigenous communities to look europeans
2 main driving forces behind british policy development after war of 1812
- assimilation - absorb culture of dominant group - suppression and erasure of og culture, language etc.
- isolation - sir francis bond argued isolation of indigenous peoples from europeans was curcial to the disappearance of indigenous ways of life
