Important definitions Flashcards by Lindsey Kamienik

a problem that has a specific goal state,
clearly defined solutions paths and clearly
expected solutions

Well-Defined Problems

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a problem that does NOT have clear goal
states, solutions paths or expected solutions
(e.g., choosing a major, deciding whether to
break-up with your partner)

Ill-Defined Problems

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AI can solve well-defined
problems well, but not ill-defined problems
because of the uncertainty

Moravec’s Paradox

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a systematic algorithm that represents all possible steps
from a problem to a goal state

Brute Force

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select the operation that brings you closer to the goal without
examining the whole problem space

Some problems require moving AWAY from goal to solve it

Hill Climbing

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create sub-goals as you move closer to the final
goal state (more flexible)

Means-End Analysis

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problems are solved using
knowledge and trial and error

The Behaviorist Approach

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problems are solved by considering
them more deeply

The Gestalt Approach

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uses knowledge from past experiences
and uses a trial-and-error strategy to work out solutions

Reproductive process

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a response that produces a satisfying effect
will become more likely to occur again in that situation, and a
response that produce a discomforting effect will become less likely
to occur again in that situation

Law of Effect

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Reproductive process and Law of Effect are part of what theory

Behaviorist Approach

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solution to a problem suddenly comes
to consciousness; Max Wertheimer

insight phenomena

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process
of problem solving that occurs when thinking is characterized by
the restructuring of information in such a way as to provide a
solution (produces insight)

a productive process

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actively manipulating information to change its
representation in your mind

restructuring

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experience of having a sudden switch in how you see
something

Gestalt switches

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Problems in which the solution occurs
suddenly in your consciousness

Insight Problems

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Problems in which you must
consciously work through each step of a
problem to arrive at a solution

Non-Insight Problems

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Suddenness, Ease, Positive, Confidence

Four Features of Insight

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Making comparisons between two situations; applying the
solution from one of the situations to another situation

Analogical Problem Solving

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bias to use familiar methods to solve a problem
can result in the inability to seek and use a better method

Einstellung Effect

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However, participants continued to use this more complex
mental set on subsequent tasks

The Water Jug Problem

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the tendency to view objects only for
their intended purpose because of prior experience with that object

Functional Fixedness

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the ability to use
existing knowledge and skills in order to deal with novelty and create
ideas that are appropriate given the current situation and that are
also valuable

Creative Intelligence (Sternberg)

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the number ideas a person can generate about a particular
topic or item

ideational
fluency

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Computer programs, algorithms, and artificial intelligence can solve problems much quicker and more effectively than people

Information Processing Approach

a mental shortcut or rule of thumb that can be used to get a quick and mostly accurate response in some situations but may lead to errors in others

Heuristic

deviations from rationality (errors) that are caused by using heuristics

Bias

estimate the probability of an event based on the ease at which it can be brought to mind

Availability Heuristic

tendency to make inferences on the basis that small samples resemble the larger population they were drawn

Representative Heuristic

People start off with one value and adjust accordingly from there

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic

Seeing casual relationships when there are none

Illusory Correlation

Can explain deviations, extreme values will be closer to the mean when measured a second time

Regression Towards the Mean

people are limited by both environmental constraints People are satisficers - look for situations that are "good enough"

Bounded Rationality

sees heuristics are the optimal approach Given the right environment, heuristic can be better than optimization or other complex strategies

Ecological Rationality

objective (externally defined) criterion for making your choice

Perceptual Decision Making

subjective (internally defined) criterion for making your choice

Value-Based Decision Making

taking an action despite an outcome being uncertain

Risk

when you have incomplete information about the consequences

Ambiguity

Loss aversion is captured in the endowment effect Once ownership is established, people are averse to give it up

Endowment Effect

difference between the expected gains of a risky option and a certain option

Risk Premium

The way in which questions and information are organized influences decisions even when content is identical. Positive Frame: what you can gain Negative Frame: what you can lose fMRI studies show increased amygdala

The Framing Effect

difference between what you predicted would happen and what actually happened

Prediction error

_______ prediction error increases positive affect (i.e., happiness), and then leads to more risky behaviors (e.g., gambling)

Positive

subjective value assigned to an object

Utility

describes how people map money to satisfaction

Utility function

Probabilities are not treated objectively (extreme events tend to be rare) Availability of an option (how easy it comes to mind) changes the perceived frequency of occurrence

Prospect Theory: Probability Weighting Function

System 1: fast, effortless, automatic, intuitive, emotional System 2: slow, deliberative, effortful, explicit, logical

Dual Process Theory

When people are faced with multiple options, they will choose the one that returns the highest likely value.

Expected Utility Hypotheses (EUT)

the tendency to rate more believable conclusions as more valid

Belief bias

People rate a conclusion as valid as long as the qualifying word (e.g., ‘all,’ ‘some’) in the premise match those in the conclusion.

The Atmospheric Effect (Woodsworth, 1935)

People construct mental simulations of the world in their minds based on syllogisms

Mental Models

People have trouble reasoning with negative information thinking that “withholding is not as bad as doing”

Omission bias

The tendency to look for evidence that supports one’s current belief and to not look for/actively ignore contradictory information

Confirmation bias

The tendency to hold beliefs about risk that are consistent with their broader social and moral values

Cultural cognition

our tendency to overestimate our likelihood of experiencing positive events and underestimate our likelihood of experiencing negative events.

Optimism bias

thinking that a person who experiences success will keep having success

Hot-hand belief

People tend to prefer avoiding losing something as compared to gaining something of equal value (a cognitive bias)

Loss Aversion

People are willing to pay more money for products that are assembled versus not assembled

IKEA Effect

emotions directly related to a decision being made

Integral emotions

unrelated emotions someone is experiencing at the time of decision making

Incidental emotions

What region is partly responsible for decision-making

Ventromedial PFT (vPFC)

Those with damage to the vmPFC can identify correct decisions, but often do not choose to make them

True

had a racially-motivated view on intelligence tests

Galton (1822 to 1911)

general intelligence factor (g) that varies across people but stable within a person

Charles Spearman

- the capacity to learn new ways of solving problems and performing activities - driven by genetics - sensitive to normative aging

Fluid intelligence

- the accumulated knowledge of the world we have acquired throughout our lives (vocabulary, math) - affect by personality, education, culture - driven by motivation to learn

Crystallized intelligence

someone with limited mental ability and has an exceptional specific ability

Savant Syndrome

suggests that there various types of intelligence & that are all equally important & can vary independently from one another

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence

3 types of intelligence (analytical, creative, and practical) which interact to produce intelligent behavior;

Sternberg’s theory of intelligence

“The global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment” - Created separate tests for children and adults & types of intelligence

Weschler Tests

non-verbal assessment of fluid intelligence

Raven’s progressive matrices

the test is measuring what it is intended to measure

It is valid

there is consistency of test scores over time, across different test items or across different raters

It is reliable

Rationalism Logic & a priori knowledge Influential for theory development

Plato

Empiricism Experience & (systemic observation) Influential for experimental methods

Aristotle

understand the structure of the mind by identifying the basic building block and then see how they give rise to more complex behaviours Introspection

Structuralism

focus on understanding the functions of the mind

Functionalism (William James)

Psychology can be objectively studied through observations; focus on stimulus-response

Behaviourism (Watson)

Associate an involuntary response and a stimulus

Classical conditioning

Associate a voluntary behaviour and a consequence (reward or punishment)

Operant conditioning

mathematic equation to show that the more information contained in a signal, the longer it takes to make a (correct) response to this signal Response time increased as the number of stimulus alternatives (number of lights) increased More information = slower reaction times

Hick’s law

Suggests processing capacity is limited; what gets processed is determined by familiarity and certainty

Webster & Thomas (Airplane control)

The deteriorating quality of decisions made by an individual after a long session of decision making

Decision fatigue

The ability to generalize lab findings to real-world settings

Ecological validity

certain cognitive function reside in specific regions of the brain

functional specialization

the mind and brain are separate

Dualism

the mind and brain are the same

Monism

mind and brain are separate substances that interact with and influence each other

Interactionism (form of Dualism)

mind is a superfluous by-product of bodily functioning

Epiphenomenalism (form of Dualism)

all realities the result of physical processes

Physicalism/materialism

all reality is a mental construct

Idealism

neither physical nor mental; mind & brain composed of the same neutral element

Neutral monism

investigate brain mechanisms in animals to learn about the human brain

Animal models

study brain function by comparing behaviour/response of brain injured patient to that of a healthy control

Neuropsychological case studies

info about WHERE activity is located

Spatial resolution

info about WHEN activity occurred

Temporal resolution

Records the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes affixed to the scalp Good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A non-invasive imaging technique that uses a magnetic field and computer-generated radio waves to create detailed images of the organs and tissues in your body

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

image metabolic activity *good spatial but poor temporal resolution

fMRI

a noninvasive form of brain stimulation in which a changing magnetic field is used to induce an electric current in the brain

Brain stimulation Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

sense of where our limbs are in space

Proprioception

sense of pain due to body damage

Nociception

sense of balance

Equilibrioception

low resolution, good for seeing in low light conditions, no colour

Rods

high resolution, good for seeing sharp details, colour

Cones

difficulty recognizing or perceiving one kind of visual stimulus while maintaining the ability to process other kinds of stimuli

Visual agnosia

difficulty in recognizing individual faces Related to the inferior temporal cortex (or fusiform face area (FFA))

Prosopagnosia

difficulty recognizing everyday objects such as tools, eating implements, etc. Related to the lateral occipital cortex (LOC)

Semantic agnosia (optic ataxia)

difficulty with understanding the meaning of what you are seeing

Associative visual agnosia

processing the “where” aspects

Dorsal Stream

processing the “what” aspects

Ventral stream

the influence from the external environment on perception

Bottom-up processing:

the influence of knowledge (expectations, context, goals) on perception

Top-down processing

perceptual processing is your brain’s attempt to construct a mental model of the external world based on sensory input

Constructive perception

perception is based on the relationship between sensory stimuli and a person’s actions

Direct perception

perception is based on the relationship between sensory stimuli and a person’s actions

Direct perception

Principle of proximity Principle of closed forms Principle of good contour Principle of similarity

Gestalt Organization Principles

Good, but cannot explain how we identify objects from different perspectives and how we identify new objects to a known category

Template matching theory

Average representation Flexible object identification

Prototype theory

Visual input is broken down into individual parts and each feature is processed separately

Feature detection