Crime A2 Implication in the real world?

Question 1

When identifying criminal behaviours?

Answer 1

there is no set of symptoms or characeristics

Question 2

What is crime defined as?

Answer 2

any act that violates the law and results in punishment by the state
this means that crime is not simply behaviour that is deemed as wrong by the law

Question 3

What is a crime only?

Answer 3

if a law is broken

Question 4

If the law has not been broken?

Answer 4

it is known as wrongdoing

Question 5

Criminal behaviours?

Answer 5

are a social construct

Question 6

Why is this?

Answer 6

because they rely on the laws in each society and the social context in which the behaviour takes place

Question 7

Who suggested the 7 categories for different types of crime?

Answer 7

Katheryne Far and Don Gibbons

Question 8

What are the 7 categories?

Answer 8

1) property pedatiry crime
2) property fradulent crime
3) interpersonal violence, general
4) transactional vice
5) order disruption
6) folk/mundane crime

Question 9

Property predatiry crime?

Answer 9

This involves people who attempt or actually take the personal property of others without permission, e.g., burglary, robbery, car theft.

Question 10

Property fradulent crime?

Answer 10

Persons are involved in deceit or manipulation, the main purpose of converting property or services of others to their own use, e.g., embezzlement, fraud, and bribery.

Question 11

Interpersonal violence, general

Answer 11

Persons are involved in actions that threaten or cause personal harm, for example, murder, assault and kidnapping

Question 12

Transactional vice?

Answer 12

Persons are involved in victimless offenses
This is where there is a willing exchange of goods or services, e.g., prostitution, illegal gambling, and drug sales.

Question 13

Folk/mundane crime?

Answer 13

Comprises of the broad category whereby persons are involved in actions that can range from minor rule violations, e.g. fishing without a license, to more serious violations load regulations on commercial vehicles

Question 14

Order disruption?

Answer 14

Persons are involved in actions where there is no direct victim but concern is raised about potential victims, e.g disordely conduct, resisting arrest, loitering and rioting

Question 15

What does folk mundane criminal acts tend to foster?

Answer 15

public ambivalence
People genuinely regard such acts as inconvenience or a nuisance, rather than a crime.

Question 16

ONS?

Answer 16

OFFICE OF NATIONAL STATISTICS

Question 17

What does ONS do?

Answer 17

This collects and publishes information about different types and amounts of criminal behaviour within the UK.

Question 18

What does it currently categorise criminal behaviours into?

Answer 18

2 primary offense groups.
1. Victim base crimes
2. Crime against society

Question 19

Criminal behaviours in the 2nd cateogry?

Answer 19

may include behaviours such as public order offences, drug offences and possession of weapons

Question 20

If we consider the categories of criminal behaviours as suggested by Farr and Gibbons?

Answer 20

we may suspect that most people have committed at least 1 crime, especially a crime under the category of Folk and Mundane.

Question 21

John Muncie and Egene Mclaughin?

Answer 21

(1996) suggest that most people consider themselves to be law abiding citizens

Question 22

The average person in the UK?

Answer 22

if convicted only once for each type of crime they have recently committed, would have spent a total of 6 years in jail and be fined up to £61,000. This research highlights a couple of problems that psychologists are faced with when investigating criminal behaviours

Question 23

Who is a criminal?

Answer 23

Crime is defined as any act that violates state law, which can change over time. For example, homosexuality was illegal in the UK until 1969 and remains criminalized in some countries like Egypt and Saudi Arabia. Historically, minor thefts, such as stealing a sheep or a handkerchief, were punishable by hanging. This evolving definition influences psychological research on criminal behavior, raising questions about whether psychologists should focus solely on individuals who have been caught, charged, and punished for their crimes.

Question 24

Is criminal behaviour always wrong?

Answer 24

Criminal behavior can sometimes be morally justified, as individuals may break the law to challenge unjust laws or societal norms. A notable example is Nelson Mandela, who was arrested for conspiracy to overthrow the state in 1962 and served 27 years in prison. After his release, he became a Nobel Peace Prize laureate and president of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. While his actions were once deemed criminal, many now view them as inspirational and heroic.

Question 25

Official statistics?

Answer 25

Most countries produce official crime statistics annually. In the UK, the Home Office has compiled such data since 1805 for England and Wales. Current statistics include incidents reported to the police or observed by them, covering various categories like robbery, violence, nonviolent crimes, driving offenses, and offenses involving children and sexual crimes.

Question 26

Victim surveys?

Answer 26

An alternative approach to measuring crime is the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW), initiated in 1982. Since 2001, this annual survey samples about 50,000 households, interviewing individuals aged 16 and over, along with a smaller group of 10-15 year-olds. Participants, randomly selected from the Royal Mail address list, are asked about crimes experienced—both reported and unreported—and their views on crime causes in Britain.

Question 27

Offender surveys?

Answer 27

A third method for collecting crime data involves questioning offenders. The Offending, Crime and Justice Survey (OCJS) was conducted annually in England and Wales from 2003 to 2006. Initially, it sampled individuals aged 10-65 in private households, with a longitudinal study focusing on a subsample of 5,000 people aged 10 to 25 conducted until 2006.

Question 28

Biological explanation 1?

Answer 28

inherent criminality

Question 29

Inherent criminality?

Answer 29

The question of why some people commit crimes while others do not involves the debate between nature and nurture. This includes biological factors and life experiences. The notion that some individuals are “born criminals” stems from Italian physician Cesare Lombroso’s work. Modern research has advanced our understanding of the genetic mechanisms that may contribute to inherited criminal traits.

Question 30

Whose idea is it that some people are born to be a criminal?

Answer 30

Casare lombroso

Question 31

Casare Lombroso?

Answer 31

Italian physician and psychiatrist
( 1835-1909)
he worked with the insane and in prisons wrote a book called the criminal mind
1876 - he sent out his views that criminals posessed similar characteristics to lower primates
Inherited physique explained their criminality
his ideas were formulate at the time of Charles Darwin ; during this time, darwin had introduced the theory of evolution
based on this theory, lombroso suggested that criminals are esssentially throwbacks to an earlier species

Question 32

Atavistic form?

Answer 32

Atavistic means a tendency to revert to an ancestral type

Question 33

Features?

Answer 33

Lombroso identified various physical features he associated with criminals, including facial asymmetry, large jaws and cheekbones, unusual ear sizes, and distinctive nose shapes. He suggested that these traits indicated a primitive, atavistic nature. Despite the bizarre nature of his ideas, they significantly influenced criminology. Lombroso advocated for more humane treatment of criminals, emphasizing that biology and environment can limit free will.

Question 34

Genetic argument?

Answer 34

Proposes that one or more genes predispose individuals to criminal behaviour

Question 35

What evidence is there for a genetic component?

Answer 35

Evidence for a genetic component in criminal behavior comes from twin studies. Adrian Raine (1993) found a 52% concordance rate for delinquency in monozygotic (MZ) twins compared to 21% in dizygotic (DZ) twins. Concordance measures how often both twins exhibit a disorder.

Two genes linked to criminal behavior are Monoamine Oxidase (MAOA) and Cadherin-13 (CDH-13). Han Brunner et al. (1993) studied a Dutch family with a history of violent behaviors and found a low MAOA gene, nicknamed the “warrior gene,” associated with aggression.

In a separate study, Jari Tiihonen et al. (2015) analyzed 900 offenders and confirmed low MAOA and CDH-13 activity, estimating these abnormalities account for 5-10% of violent crimes.

Question 36

Diathesis stress?

Answer 36

The interactionist approach to behavior, such as schizophrenia, posits that both an underlying vulnerability and an environmental trigger are necessary for onset. Modern genetics emphasizes epigenetics, where gene expression is influenced by environmental factors, like childhood maltreatment.

Avshalom Caspi et al. (2002) conducted a longitudinal study following around 1,000 individuals since infancy in the 1970s. They found that 12% of men with a low MAOA gene who experienced maltreatment accounted for about 44% of violent convictions, highlighting the complex interplay between genetics and environment in antisocial behavior.

Question 37

What does epigenetics proposes an interplay mean?

Answer 37

where genes are switched on or off
occurs by epigenomes, which in turn have been affected by environmental factors for example diathesis stress

Question 38

Differences in the brain?

Answer 38

Criminal behavior may be linked to differences in brain areas and neurotransmitter levels. Neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine influence feelings of pleasure, mood, and motivation, affecting memory and concentration. Low serotonin levels are associated with depression and anxiety.

Adrian Raine (2004) reviewed 71 brain imaging studies, finding that murderers and violent individuals often show reduced prefrontal cortex activity, which regulates emotion and behavior. This reduction is linked to impulsiveness and loss of control. Seo et al. (2008) suggest that low serotonin may predispose individuals to impulsive aggression, while dopamine may exacerbate this. Additionally, both high and low levels of noradrenaline are connected to aggression, as low levels can impair threat perception.

Question 39

Neurotransmitter def?

Answer 39

Chemical substance, for example, serotonin or dopamine ( acts on areas of the brain to give you feelings of pleasure, satisfaction, and motivation) ( it has a role to play in controlling memory, mood, sleep, learning, and concentration), which play an important part in the workings of the nervous system by inhibiting or facilitating the transmission of nerve impulses across a synapse.

Question 40

Serotonin?

Answer 40

it is one of the natural body chemicals that control your mood; low levels have been linked with depression and other mood problems, e.g., anxiety.

Question 41

What is noradrenaline?

Answer 41

hormone that is associated with the arousal of the autonomic nervous system
e.g increased heart rate, and is also a neutrotransmitter

Question 42

Inherited personality?

Answer 42

Hans Eysenck’s theory suggests that some people are born with certain traits that make them more likely to commit crimes.

Question 43

Evaluation?

Answer 43

Adoption studies provide further evidence for the genetic influence on offending behavior. Raymond Crow (1972) found that children adopted from biological parents with criminal records had a 38% higher risk of offending by age 18, compared to just 6% for those whose biological parents were law-abiding. Sarah Mednick et al. (1987) studied 14,000 adoptees and found that 15% of sons adopted into criminal families became criminals, compared to 20% whose biological parents were criminals, indicating a stronger role for inherited genes.

Question 44

Explaining nonviolent crime?

Answer 44

Most genetic research on criminal behavior focuses on its links to violence and aggression, suggesting that biological factors may primarily explain violent and psychopathic crimes—traits that can be inherited, as shown by Bruce Blonigen et al. (2005) in a study of twins. However, many crimes, such as theft and fraud, are nonviolent. Psychologist Lynn Findlay (2011) argues that crime is a social construct, defined by societal norms, which complicates the idea that criminal behavior can be solely explained by genetics and environmental interactions.

Question 45

Problems with determinist explanations?

Answer 45

Genetic explanations suggest that inherited genes determine behavior, as argued by Steven Mobley in his defense for committing a crime. However, research shows that criminality cannot be solely attributed to genetics. For example, Tiihonen et al. (2015) found that individuals with a defective gene were 13 times more likely to exhibit repeated violent behavior, but not everyone with this gene became a criminal. This raises legal questions about whether behavior is beyond a person’s control. While biology may make it harder for some to avoid criminal violence, environmental factors also play a significant role, indicating that a deterministic view of criminal behavior cannot be entirely dismissed.

Question 46

Brain differences: cause or effect?

Answer 46

For genes to influence criminal behavior, they must be connected to physical or psychological effects. Research indicates that many criminals have a history of head injuries, with Harman (2012) reporting that 8.5% of the U.S. prison population has suffered brain injuries. This suggests that differences in brain function may arise more from environmental factors (nurture) than genetic predispositions (nature).

Question 47

Steve Mobley?

Answer 47

He was accused of murdering a Domino’s Pizza manager in Georgia. Testimony revealed he had a troubled childhood marked by lying, stealing, and cruelty to animals, despite coming from a well-off family with no abuse history. His family, however, had a history of violent crimes over four generations. Mobley’s lawyer proposed testing for the criminal variant of the MAOA gene to argue he was predisposed to crime. The judge and Georgia Supreme Court found the evidence insufficient to establish a causal link between genes and criminal behavior. He was executed in 2005.

Question 48

Biological explanation 2?

Answer 48

the role of the amygdlaa

Question 49

Bioexplanation 2?

Answer 49

Research suggests that criminal behavior may have a biological basis, leading to the development of neurocriminology, which explores neurological causes in the brain and nervous system (Glenn and Raine, 2014). This is particularly evident in aggressive crimes. Psychologists identify two types of aggression: proactive aggression, which is planned and premeditated, and reactive aggression, which is impulsive and emotionally driven. Most studies focus on the amygdala, a key brain structure involved in aggression.

Question 50

Proactive agression?

Answer 50

cold blooded, planned and premeditated

Question 51

Reactive agression?

Answer 51

hot blooded, angry and accompanied by phsyiological arousal

Question 52

What is the structure and function of the amygdala?

Answer 52

The amygdala is a small but crucial part of the brain involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression. Located in the medial temporal lobe, it consists of a cluster of neuron cell bodies and is part of the limbic system. There are two amygdalae, one in each hemisphere. James Papez (1937) and Paul McLean (1952) first highlighted its role in emotional behavior. The amygdala is highly interconnected with the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex, influencing emotion, motivation, and social interaction. It also helps assess environmental threats, playing a key role in aggressive behavior. Additionally, the hippocampus, also in the forebrain, is linked to memory and learning.

Question 53

Amygdala and aggression?

Answer 53

Emile Coccaro et al. (2007) studied the amygdala’s role in aggression by examining individuals with intermittent explosive disorder (IED), characterized by sudden outbursts of reactive aggression. Participants viewed images of faces while undergoing functional MRI (fMRI) scans. Those with IED exhibited heightened amygdala activity when viewing angry faces, indicating a link between amygdala function and aggressive emotion processing. The study’s realism was enhanced by using angry expressions, which are common signals of threat.

Question 54

Amygdala and fear conditioning?

Answer 54

Yu Gao (2010) proposed that amygdala dysfunction may lead to aggression and criminal behavior by disrupting fear conditioning. Children typically learn to inhibit aggressive behaviors through fear of punishment, with the amygdala playing a key role in processing fear. If the amygdala is dysfunctional, a child may fail to recognize social cues indicating threat, such as angry faces, and thus not associate aggression with negative outcomes. This results in fearless and overly aggressive behavior. A longitudinal study of 1,795 participants found that those who exhibited no fear conditioning at age 3 (measured by physiological responses) were more likely to commit crimes by age 23, suggesting a causal link between amygdala dysfunction and antisocial behavior.

Question 55

Evaluation: supporting research evidence?

Answer 55

Catarina Gospic et al. (2011) used the ultimatum game to study aggressive behavior in a lab setting. In this game, one player (the proposer) offers to split a sum of money, either fairly or unfairly. An unfair offer serves as a social provocation, and if the responder rejects it, both players receive nothing, marking the rejection as aggressive behavior. During the game, participants acted as responders while undergoing fMRI scans. The researchers found that rejecting unfair offers heightened amygdala activity. Additionally, administering a sedative reduced aggression by halving the rejection rate and lowering amygdala activity, providing strong evidence for a link between reactive aggression and increased amygdala function.

Question 56

Support from longitudinal studies?

Answer 56

Dustin Pardini (2014) studied 503 males who had participated in a previous study as children (1986-1987). Twenty years later, they identified 56 men with a history of aggressive behavior, including serious crimes like rape and robbery. Using fMRI scans, the researchers measured amygdala volume in these men and found that higher aggression levels over 20 years were linked to lower amygdala volumes. This association remained significant even after controlling for factors like race, age, IQ, and substance abuse. The findings provide strong support for the amygdala’s role in aggression and suggest that differences in amygdala volume may predict future aggressive behavior and criminal involvement.

Question 57

Further brain areas and their importance?

Answer 57

The amygdala is part of a complex network of brain structures that influences aggressive criminal behavior, working alongside the orbital frontal cortex (OFC), which regulates self-control and impulsivity. Research by Adrian Raine in 1997 found that murderers with high reactive aggression showed increased amygdala activity but lower OFC metabolism. This highlights the complexity of aggression regulation, suggesting that dysfunction in the amygdala alone cannot fully explain criminal behavior. Instead, aggressive behavior results from the interplay between multiple brain structures and other biological and environmental factors. Thus, while amygdala dysfunction may be a risk factor, it is not a direct cause of criminality.

Question 58

Amygdala, psychopathy and criminal behaviour?

Answer 58

Psychopathy, part of the dark triad of personality disorders, is characterized by manipulativeness, lack of empathy, and emotional detachment. Research indicates that amygdala dysfunction is a key deficit in psychopathy. A study by Andrea Glenn et al. (2009) involved participants with varying degrees of psychopathy who underwent fMRI scans while making moral decisions. The findings revealed that lower amygdala activity during emotional dilemmas is associated with psychopathy. This dysfunction disrupts the normal inhibitory response to others’ distress, leading to impulsive, aggressive behavior and criminality without guilt or remorse.

Question 59

Change in neurobiology?

Answer 59

Some psychologists hesitate to endorse biological explanations for criminal behavior, as they offer limited prospects for change. If dysfunction in brain structures is the cause, practical solutions seem elusive. However, one potential approach is to reverse amygdala dysfunction, possibly through dietary modifications. Bernard Gessch and colleagues (2002) conducted a placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind study to explore this idea.

Question 60

Placebo def?

Answer 60

a drug or other form of treatment that contains no active ingredients or therapeutic procedure, i.e., one group is given the real treatment and the other group is given the placebo.

Question 61

Double blind?

Answer 61

in a research study, neither the participant nor the experimenter is aware of the research aims. Therefore, there are no expectations.

Question 62

Randomised def?

Answer 62

method that ensures that each item has an equal chance of being selected

Question 63

Bernard Gessch and coworkers, 2002
He conducted a placebo-controlled, randomised, double-blind study.?

Answer 63

In a study of 231 adult prisoners, some received nutrient capsules (vitamins, minerals, omega-3 fatty acids), while others received a placebo. After two weeks, the supplement group committed 35% fewer disciplinary offenses than before and 26% fewer than the placebo group. This suggests potential benefits of a neurobiological approach to altering criminal behavior. Adrian Raine (2013) emphasized that biology is not destiny and that biological pathways to crime and violence can be changed.

Question 64

Individual differences, explanation 1 :Eysenck’s criminal personality ?

Answer 64

Shifting focus from biological to psychological factors, we consider the role of nurture—behaviors acquired through experiences and interactions. Separating nature and nurture is challenging, as illustrated by the diathesis-stress model, which incorporates life experiences. Eysenck proposed that personality is defined by three dimensions with a genetic basis, suggesting that adult personality results from a blend of biological tendencies and learning experiences, helping to explain criminal behavior.

Question 65

Nurture def?

Answer 65

those aspects of behaviour that are acquied through experiences, i.e learnt from interactions with the physical and social environment

Question 66

Eysenck’s theory of personality?

Answer 66

Hans Eyencks ( 1967) and (1978) developed a general theory of personality.
He based this on the idea that character traits
(Moodiness and talkativeness) tend to cluster among 3 dimensions.
The dimensions were extraversion , neuroticism, and psychoticism.

Question 67

Extraversion def?

Answer 67

extraversions are categorised as outgoing, having positive emotions, but they may get bored easily.

Question 68

Neuroticism - stability?

Answer 68

the tendency to experience negative emotional states , for example anger, anxiety, and depression , rather than positive emotional states

Question 69

Psychotism-normality?

Answer 69

egocentric, aggressive, impulsive, impersonal , lacking in empathy, and generally not concerned about the welfare of others.

Question 70

What did he devise?

Answer 70

personality test to assesss an individual’s personality
eysenck personaloty questionnaire

Question 71

Biological basis?

Answer 71

Eysenck (1982) proposed that personality traits have a biological basis, primarily innate, with 67% of trait variance attributed to genetics. Extraversion is linked to an individual’s level of arousal in the nervous system: underaroused individuals seek external stimulation to boost cortisol levels, while overaroused introverts avoid stimulation to reduce arousal.

Question 72

Neutoticism?

Answer 72

Personality stability is linked to reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), part of the autonomic nervous system. Neurotic individuals are unstable and easily upset, while stable individuals have a less reactive nervous system, remaining calm under pressure.

Question 73

Psychoticism?

Answer 73

It has been related to higher levels of testosterone
This means that men, who have higher levels of testosterone than women, are more likely to be found at this end of the spectrum.

Question 74

Link to criminal behaviour?

Answer 74

The connection between personality and criminal behavior is linked to arousal levels. Extroverts seek more stimulation, leading them to engage in risky activities, while neurotics may overreact to threats, increasing their likelihood of criminality. Psychopathy, characterized by aggression and lack of empathy, is directly associated with criminal behavior. Eysenck proposed that criminality arises from the interplay of innate personality traits and socialization. While normal individuals learn to avoid wrongdoing through punishment (operant conditioning), those high in extraversion and neuroticism may be less conditioned, failing to learn from negative consequences and thus more prone to antisocial behavior.

Question 75

Evaluation?

Answer 75

Research supports the link between personality traits and criminal behavior. Dunlop et al. (2012) found that extraversion, psychoticism, and deception measures were strong predictors of delinquency among participants aged 15 to 75, assessing minor offenses like theft and traffic violations. However, van Dam et al. (2007) noted that only a small group of male juvenile offenders scored high on all three of Eysenck’s personality variables, suggesting that the relationship may not apply universally.

Question 76

Research on the genetic basis of personality?

Answer 76

Eysenck’s theory posits that personality types have a biological basis, supported by twin studies. Zuckerman (1987) found a correlation of +0.52 for neuroticism in identical (MZ) twins compared to +0.24 in non-identical (DZ) twins, and +0.51 for extraversion in MZ twins versus +0.12 in DZ twins. Similar trends were noted for psychoticism. While this indicates a significant genetic component, it suggests around 40% of variance in these traits is genetic, which may be slightly inflated due to the similar upbringing of MZ twins.

Question 77

Personality may not be consistent?

Answer 77

Theories of personality often assume consistency in traits, suggesting that individuals display stable characteristics across all situations. However, psychologists like Walter Mischel argue for a situational perspective, indicating that behavior can vary significantly depending on the context. Research by Mischel and Peake (1982) found little correlation in traits displayed by individuals across different situations, undermining the idea of a singular “criminal personality.”

Additionally, personality tests, such as the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), may lack reliability. Respondents often provide socially desirable answers rather than truthful ones, as they must choose between binary options. While lie scales aim to filter out dishonest responses, the inherent limitations in personality testing mean that while certain traits can predict delinquency, they are insufficient for accurately identifying potential criminals.

Question 78

Cognition distortion?

Answer 78

form of irrational thinking
distortions = ways that reality has become twisted, thus what is perceived may no longer represent what is actually true
The result is that a person’s perception of events is wrong, but they think it is accurate.
In the context of criminal behaviour, such distortions allow an offender to deny or rationalise their behaviour

Question 79

Individual difference explanation 2 - cognitive factors?

Answer 79

Cognitive explanations are focused on the way that thinking affects behaviour
Cognitive explanations are often used to explain depression, in terms of irrational thinking
A different kind of cognitive approach is to consider moral reasoning
The way that people think about rights and wrongs
This should influence the decisions that people make about criminal behaviour

Question 80

attribution?

Answer 80

refers to what we think when we observe someone’s actions and draw an inference about what it means

Question 81

Hostile attribtution bias?

Answer 81

when someone has a leaning toward always thinking the worst, for example- if someone smiles at you but you think that the person is actually thinking bad thoughts about you.
Such negative interpretations may then lead to aggressive behaviour.
in terms of criminal behaviour, hostile attention bias = more likely linked to increased levels of aggression

Question 82

Minimilazation?

Answer 82

Magnification and minimalization are cognitive distortions where the consequences of a situation are either exaggerated or downplayed. In the context of criminal behavior, minimalization allows offenders to diminish the negative impact of their actions, helping them cope with the consequences. This can reduce negative emotions. For example, a burglar might rationalize that stealing from a wealthy family will have little effect on their lives, leading them to feel less guilt about the crime.

Question 83

Level of moral reasoning ?

Answer 83

Lawrence Kohlberg (1969) developed a theory of moral reasoning based on interviews with boys and men about their moral decisions. He created a stage theory of moral development, with each stage representing a more advanced understanding of morality. Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning, each divided into two stages, indicating that individuals progress through these stages due to biological maturity and opportunities to develop their thinking, including the ability to consider others’ perspectives.

Question 84

Linking this to offending behaviour?

Answer 84

Kohlberg’s longitudinal study revealed that only about 10% of adults reach the post-conventional level of moral reasoning, with most operating at the conventional level. Adults at this stage may justify breaking the law to maintain societal relationships, such as protecting family. Most criminals are likely at the pre-conventional level, believing law-breaking is justified if rewards outweigh costs or if punishment can be avoided. This perspective aligns with the concept of age of criminal responsibility.

Question 85

in england and wales?

Answer 85

Children under age 10 cannot be charged with a crime because they are believed to lack understanding of moral responsibility. They are thought to be at the pre-conventional level, judging right and wrong solely based on consequences rather than moral principles.

In Kohlberg’s longitudinal study, just under 20% of the children at the age of 10 were at stage 1 and about 60% were at stage 2

Question 86

Evaluation
Research support for hostile attribution bias ?

Answer 86

Michael Schönberg (2014) studied 55 violent offenders in prison, comparing their responses to those of matched normal participants. He presented faces showing varying intensities of angry, happy, and fearful emotions. The offenders were more likely to misinterpret angry expressions as aggressive. The researchers concluded that this misinterpretation of non-verbal cues may contribute to aggressive impulsive behavior in susceptible individuals.

Question 87

Research support for minimilization?

Answer 87

Henry Kennedy and Donald Grubin (1992) found that sex offenders often downplayed their crimes, attributing some responsibility to the victims or denying that a crime occurred. Shadd Maruna and Ruth Mann (2006) suggested that this tendency to blame external factors is common human behavior used to protect oneself, indicating it is not particularly deviant.

Question 88

Research supports the level of moral reasoning?

Answer 88

Research by Anne Kolby and Lawrence Kohlberg (1987) indicated a universal sequence of moral reasoning stages, though post-conventional reasoning was less common in rural areas. Gisli Gudjonsson and Jon Sigurdsson found that 38% of juvenile offenders did not consider consequences, and 36% felt confident they wouldn’t get caught, suggesting many were at Kohlberg’s pre-conventional level. Additionally, Chien-Ann Chen and Dennis Howitt (2007) found that Taiwanese adolescent offenders with more advanced moral reasoning were less likely to engage in violent crimes, supporting the link between moral reasoning and offending behavior.

Question 89

Limitations of Kohleberg’s theory?

Answer 89

Kohlberg’s theory focuses on moral thinking rather than behavior, with Dennis Krebs and Cathy Denton (2005) arguing that practical factors, like financial gain, can override moral principles. Their research indicated that individuals often use moral reasoning to justify actions after the fact. Additionally, Kohlberg’s male-only samples highlight a gender bias, as Carol Gilligan (1982) contended that the theory emphasizes a male perspective centered on justice rather than a more relational view of morality.

Question 90

Practical application?

Answer 90

Kohlberg applied his theories to promote prosocial behavior, believing moral development is influenced by cognitive maturity and social interactions. He noted that children raised in Israeli kibbutzim exhibited more advanced moral reasoning, suggesting that democratic group involvement fosters this development. He established “Just Communities” in various American schools and one prison, where members resolve disputes collaboratively, promoting commitment and responsibility within the community.

Differential association theory, a social approach, posits that criminal behavior results from learned associations rather than genetic inheritance. It emphasizes how interactions with others influence behaviors, explaining the transmission of criminality from fathers to sons through observation and reinforcement.

Question 91

What is learnt?

Answer 91

Children learn which types of crime are considered acceptable, such as viewing burglary as acceptable while seeing violent crime as undesirable. They also acquire specific methods for committing crimes, with some techniques being complex (like bank robbery) and others more straightforward (like robbing a corner shop).

Question 92

Who is it learnt from?

Answer 92

Attitudes and behaviors are learned from close personal groups, like family and peers, as well as the broader neighborhood. The local community’s support or opposition to criminal behavior (differential social organization) influences crime rates in different areas. Even non-criminal individuals or groups can hold deviant attitudes or accept such views.

Question 93

How is it learnt?

Answer 93

Sutherland proposed that the frequency, duration, and personal significance of associations influence their impact. While he didn’t specify the exact learning methods, both direct and indirect operant conditioning are likely involved. Children may be directly reinforced for deviant behaviors through praise or punished within their family or peer group. Additionally, role models who succeed in criminal activities offer indirect (vicarious) reinforcement. Social groups establish norms that define acceptable behavior, shaping perceptions of what is considered “normal.”

Question 94

9 key principles?

Answer 94

sutherland proposed these to explain differential association
Criminal behaviour is learned rather than inherited
It is learnt through association,i.e interaction and communication with others
This association is with intimate personal groups
What is learnt are techniques, motives, drives, rationalisation and attitudes
This learning is directional, either for or against crime
If the number of favourable attitudes outweighs unfavourable ones, then a person becomes an offender
The learning experiences, i.e differential associations, vary in frequency and intensity for each individual
Criminal behaviour is learnt through the same processes of any other behaviour
General ‘need’, e.g., money, is not a sufficient explanation for crime.
This is because not everyone with those needs will turn to crime

Question 95

Evaluation?

Answer 95

The major strength of Sutherland’s theory is its shift in focus from individual factors to social influences as the origins of criminal behavior. It suggests that crime can be understood through social experiences rather than personality traits. This perspective has significant real-world implications, as it implies that learning environments can be modified to reduce crime. Sutherland also introduced the concept of white-collar crime, highlighting illegal acts committed by seemingly respectable individuals in higher social classes, such as fraud and bribery, which can be explained through differential association.

Question 96

Supporting evidence?

Answer 96

Evidence supporting differential association theory includes findings from Osburne and West (1979), which showed that 40% of sons with criminal fathers had committed crimes by age 18, compared to 13% of sons of non-criminal fathers. While genetics might explain some of this, Ronald Akers et al. (1979) found that peer influence was the most significant factor in deviant behaviors like drinking. Their survey of 2,500 adolescents indicated that differential association, reinforcement, and imitation accounted for 68% of marijuana use and 55% of alcohol use.

Question 97

Methodological issues?

Answer 97

The data on differential association theory is correlational, meaning it doesn’t establish causation. For instance, criminals might seek out other criminals, which could explain the association with criminal peers. Critics like Cox et al. (2014) argue that the theory is not testable, raising challenges in measuring the impact of the number and strength of associations on attitudes.

Question 98

it can’t account for all kinds of crime?

Answer 98

Social learning influences may mainly apply to smaller crimes rather than violent offenses like rape or murder, making differential association a partial explanation for criminal behavior. While minor crimes make up a significant percentage of total offenses—e.g., 400,000 burglaries vs. 500 homicides in England and Wales in 2014—this theory struggles to explain why most crimes are committed by younger individuals. Tim Newburn (2002) found that 40% of offenses involve those under 21. In contrast, Eysenck’s personality theory links high crime rates in youth to risk-taking behavior, supported by Gudjonsson and Sigurdsson (2007), who identified risk desire as a key factor in crime.

Question 99

Social psychological explanation number 2?

Answer 99

gender socalisation

Question 100

social psychological explanation 2?

Answer 100

As of December 18, 2015, the prison population in England and Wales totaled 85,641, with 95% being male. This gender disparity has prompted researchers to explore gender as a factor in criminal behavior. By June 2023, the UK prison population reached 95,526, with 85,851 in England and Wales, 7,775 in Scotland, and 1,900 in Northern Ireland. Males accounted for 96% of the total prison population, while females represented only 4%. Since pre-COVID 2019, the female prison population has decreased by 13%, from 3,832 to 3,315, while the male population increased by 3%, from 78,802 to 81,057.

Question 101

Gender of socalisation?
patterns of socalization

Answer 101

Socialization is the process through which we learn the norms, customs, and skills needed to participate in society. Sociologists attribute gender differences in criminal behavior to this process. Edwin Sutherland (1949) noted that boys are often encouraged to take risks and be tough, while girls face closer supervision and are expected to conform. These ingrained differences in socialization contribute to a higher likelihood of young men becoming criminals, as they possess both the inclination and opportunity to commit more crimes.

Question 102

Role models?

Answer 102

Social learning theory posits that we learn gender behaviors through observing and imitating role models, with mothers being key role models for girls and fathers for boys. Albert Cohen (1955) argued that boys face challenges in this process due to less frequent access to their fathers, leading them to rebel against maternal socialization, especially if it promotes feminine traits. Boys often seek out male peer groups that reward masculine behaviors like aggression and rule-breaking, which can lead to deviant and criminal behavior. Anne Oakley (1972) noted that the distinction between masculinity and criminality can be very thin.

Question 103

Difference in social control?

Answer 103

Patriarchal societies impose greater control over women, limiting their opportunities to commit crimes. Frances Heidensohn (1985) noted that women are “controlled at home,” in the workplace, and in public. As daughters, girls face restrictions on their independence and are expected to do more housework, leading to socialization primarily within the home. Adult women often have limited opportunities for crime due to domestic responsibilities and the “glass ceiling” in the workplace, which hinders access to higher positions and white-collar crime. Media portrayals of female criminals create fear and reinforce societal norms, further constraining women’s behavior. Most imprisoned women serve time for non-violent offenses, raising questions about socialization, opportunity, and criminal effectiveness between genders.

Question 104

Evaluation?
Chivalry hypothesis?

Answer 104

The theory posits that women commit more crimes than official statistics indicate. Otto Pollack (1950) argued that male figures in the criminal justice system—police, magistrates, and judges—are socialized to be chivalrous towards women, resulting in a protective attitude. This leads to women being less likely to be arrested, charged, or convicted. Consequently, both the gender of offenders and the gender dynamics within the criminal justice system may contribute to the lower representation of women in crime statistics.

Question 105

Men are less likely to be punished?

Answer 105

Some argue that the criminal justice system (CJS) exhibits bias against women. Pat Carlen (1997) observed that women perceived as “good mothers” are less likely to be imprisoned than those with children in care. She suggested that assessments of women’s character—linked to traditional gender roles—often influence sentencing more than the severity of the offense. While men may commit more severe crimes, they are sometimes treated leniently for merely exceeding gender expectations. In contrast, women who offend challenge these roles, highlighting a greater disparity in criminality between genders than prison rates indicate.

Question 106

Hormones in males?

Answer 106

The gender difference in criminal behavior may stem more from biological factors than social ones. Males produce significantly higher levels of testosterone, which has been linked to aggressive behavior. James Dabbs et al. (1987) found that 9 of 11 inmates with low testosterone committed non-violent crimes, while 10 of 11 with high testosterone committed violent crimes. This suggests a connection between testosterone and aggression, indicating that biological differences may contribute to criminal behavior in addition to socialization and control factors.

Question 107

Hormones in females?

Answer 107

Females may exhibit less criminal behavior partly due to higher levels of oestradiol, a hormone that promotes social behavior and empathy, traits often lacking in criminals. Peter Eriksson et al. (2003) found that men with a history of alcohol-related aggression had lower oestradiol levels, suggesting a negative correlation between oestradiol and testosterone in relation to violent behavior. This indicates that while male hormones may promote aggression, female hormones can reduce it, influencing criminal behavior in both genders.

Question 108

Applying this explanation to modifying criminal behaviours: The Man Up project?

Answer 108

Gender socialization plays a crucial role in criminal behavior, suggesting that altering male socialization could help reduce such behavior. This could involve teaching conflict management through ‘feminine’ strategies and promoting non-aggressive male role models in media. Initiatives like the Man Up project aim to help men examine how masculinity shapes their identity and challenge harmful stereotypes. However, there is currently no solid research supporting this approach, though anecdotal evidence indicates potential positive effects on recidivism.

Question 109

Methods of modifying behaviour 1?
introduction

Answer 109

Punishment is commonly seen as the primary method to modify criminal behavior, reflecting a behaviorist approach. However, statistics challenge this view, with 46% of adults and over 67% of youths reconvicted within a year of release, according to a 2014 prison reform report. As a result, criminologists are exploring alternative methods, such as cognitive approaches that focus on changing thought patterns. Anger management, a form of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), aims to reduce anger by reconceptualizing emotional responses and has become a prevalent rehabilitation program used in both prison and community settings.

Question 110

Anger management?

Answer 110

Anger management programs for prisoners have two main aims. The short-term goal is to reduce anger and aggression, which are significant issues in prisons, often described as “efficient anger factories” by Novaco (2013) due to factors like violent inmates and overcrowding.