My summary of notes- Module 1, 2 & 3 Flashcards
To Be goated!!! get all ones! distinctions!!
spell
Sociology is the systematic study of society
(Macionis and Plummer, 2005).
Comte referred to sociology as the scientific study of society and argued that all
societies
develop and progress through three (3) stages: religious, metaphysical (being
philosophical), and scientific.
Although Auguste Comte is considered the “founding father” of Sociology, he is not among
the three major founding fathers. These three are:
➢ Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
➢ Karl Marx (1818-1883)
➢ Max Weber (1864-1920).
Sociology is an important social discipline because:
➢ It allows for the investigation of the influence of social forces on human behaviours.
➢ It helps the individual to understand human society and how social systems, structures
and institutions works.
➢ It looks beyond common sense to understand human actions and interactions.
➢ It allows for critical thinking about social issues and problems.
MAJOR CARIBBEAN THEORISTS
➢ M.G. Smith –>The Plural Society Thesis
➢ Kamau Braithwaite – The Creole Society Thesis
➢ Edith Clarke – The Development of Afro-Caribbean families
➢ Lloyd Braithwaite – The Stratification System in the Caribbean
➢ Dereck Gordon – Social Stratification and Social Mobility in Jamaica
➢ Carl Stone – The Class Society
➢ Raymond Smith – The Impact of Plantation Slavery on Families
Sociological Imagination
➢ Coined by the American sociologist C. Wright Mills
➢ It is the ability to shift from one perspective to another.
➢ The ability to see things socially and how they interact and influence each other.
➢ The ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger
society.
Sociological perspective
➢ Coined by Sociologist Peter Berger.
➢ Invites sociologists to look at familiar surroundings in a fresh way.
➢ Emphasizes that our social backgrounds influence our attitudes, behaviours, and life
chances.
Anomie
The teaching of these shared norms and values lead to the consensus/agreements
necessary to stabilize the society. Without these shared beliefs, society would
disintegrate into chaos (what Durkheim calls anomie).
Mechanical Solidarity
– Unity sprung from similarity: Common among prehistoric and pre-agricultural societies and lessens in predominance as modernity increases.
Organic Solidarity
Unity sprung from interdependence:Common
among industrial societies as the division of labour increases.
types of functions
ROBERT K. MERTON - LATENT (unintended unrecognised consequence of a social institution or action) AND MANIFEST FUNCTIONS, dyfunctions
George Herbert Mead emphasizes the three(3) principles:
1. Ascribed meanings: Human action is based on the meanings ascribed to objects.
- **Communication: **The meanings we place on symbols are due to our interaction with
others.
3. Interpretation: Before we act, we seek to interpret the symbols before us.
Mead’s postulation of I and Me
➢ Mead adds that in our minds we have a concept of “self.” The self has two parts the
“I” (our own beliefs about who we are, or our natural self) and the “me” (what we are
socialized to be).
➢ The “me” or the socialized self stems from our interaction with the “generalized
other” (society). In essence the “me” is who society tells us to be.
➢ Mead posits that the “me” is developed in childhood during the ‘Play’ and the ‘Game’
stages. Through playing games children learn that there are different roles they have to play at different times, even if they don’t want to. They learn that society has certain expectations of them which they have to fill if they want to be accepted. They
start to understand the importance of stifling the “I” and becoming the “me.”
ETHNO-METHODOLOGY
Founded by Harold Garfinkel in the 1960’s, this theory postulates that reality and
social order is a cognitive construction i.e., it is done in the mind.
➢ Individuals make sense of society according to a set of un-written rules to which they
subscribe, the documentary method. These rules guide their interpretations of their
situation and the interpretation then determines how they behave.
➢ Hence, two persons can be in the same situation and behave differently. This is
because their cognitive processes and consequent interpretation of the situation are
different.
INTERACTIONALISM
Argues that human behaviour is not determined by society or social systems, instead it
is dependent on human interactions, the meanings we allocate to the actions of others
and the situations in which we find ourselves.
Our self -concept (view of our self) is based on how we believe other people see us. It
is your view of others view of you. This view of self will guide our behaviour and
interactions with others. The process through which we form a view of ourselves (our
self-concept) is called the looking glass self. This term was introduced by Charles
Cooley. Interactionism was pioneered by Charles Cooley.
DRAUMATURGY
➢ The concept of dramaturgy was developed by Canadian-born Sociologist Erving
Goffman.
➢ Erving Goffman understood social interaction as if it were a play performed on stage
for an audience.
Front Stage and Back Stage
➢ In simple terms, “Front stage” is the type of behaviour people engage in when they
know others are watching while “Back stage” is what they do when no one is
watching.
➢ An example of “Front Stage” is a classroom lecture , where everyone has a role to
play , the teacher’s whose role is to teach and the students whose role is listen and ask
questions if needed. In the back stages of life one can be themselves as they have no
role to play and can also prep themselves for the return to front stage.
Impression Management
➢ A key aspect of dramaturgy is Impression Management.
➢ Impression Management is a very important part of the dramaturgical perspective. It
is the effort to control or manipulate others’ impressions of us on front stage.
Sign Vehicles
Sign vehicles is the term used by Goffman to refer to how people use appearance ,
manner of interacting and social setting to communicate things about themselves.
What is culture?
Ralph Linton→ the way of life of its members; the collection of ideas and habits which they
learn, share and transmit from generation to generation.
Material Culture
➢ Tangible and concrete objectives created by a society to reflect their interest and preoccupation.
➢ These include material articles that society creates for survival.
Non-Material Culture
➢ Intangible components of our way of life e.g., language, norms, values and ideas.
Therefore, culture is both concrete and abstract, that is, we can observe it through cultural
objects as well as abstract through thinking, feeling and believing.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
Culture is shared.- general consenus exists,
Culture is dynamic.- always different society to society generation to era
Culture is learnt.- innate, or intrinsic
Culutre is transmittable.- generation
Culture is adaptive.- adapts to changes.
Components of Culture
➢ Symbol
➢ Values
➢ Beliefs
➢ Norms
➢ Material culture
➢ Prescriptive
➢ Proscriptive
prescriptive vs proscriptive
“Prescriptive” describes something that provides rules or guidelines on what should be done. “Proscriptive”, on the other hand, refers to something that forbids or prohibits certain actions.
TYPES OF CULTURE
1.High culture: The elite
2.Popular culture: Common to the wider society.
3.Subculture: Shares some elements with the general culture but still maintains
unique elements.
4.Counterculture: “Outright rejection of conventional ideas or behaviour” ~Macionis
CULTURAL CHANGE
1.Invention: New objects, ideas and social patterns are created.
2.Discovery: New purposes are found for existing resources.
3.Diffusion: This refers to the spread of a cultural trait, ideas or behaviour from one society
to another.
culture shock.
Difficulty adjusting to a new culture is known as culture shock.
RESPONSES TO CULTURAL VARIABILITY
Ethnocentrism
Individuals cast judgment on another’s culture on the basis of their own value and
belief systems. This can lead to segregation, discrimination and oppression.
RESPONSES TO CULTURAL VARIABILITY
Cultural Relativity
Objectivity should be applied to understanding cultures. As such cultural practices
must be understood within the context and environment that it occurs.
Sociobiology and culture
➢ Sociobiology argues that culture evolves naturally similar to how species evolve.
➢ Charles Darwin indicated that individuals will naturally change to adapt to the
environment in which they exist.
➢ Thus, culture is not learnt but develops instinctively. Culture is really an adaptation to
the environs of that society. For e.g., in the Caribbean because of the tropical location
we wear thin, cool clothing while in Alaska they wear bulky garments.
➢ Sociobiologists are of the opinion that cultural universals prevail in all societies
because people have the natural instinct to develop certain specific norms, values,
which facilitate their existences.
Critique
➢ Critics find fault in this theory because there is not sufficient information to support
the theory, and this theory can easily be used to defend the superiority of a particular
group.
What is a Science?
Science has been defined as ‘a body of systematically arranged knowledge that shows the
operation of general laws’ (Tischler 2002).
NON-REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLING
- accidental- randomly comes into contact with
- purposive- relevantly selected
- volunteer- they volunteer for it
- quota- precisely outlining the number of
people meeting certain criteria that are to be included in the sample.
representative
Random Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
systematic
random sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling- choosing a cluster of society, biased
Spatial Sampling - e study of participants at a particular event(such as a demonstration or
open-air concert), with individuals chosen randomly from those assembled there.
Sample:
A group of people selected from the population who are deemed to be representative
of the population from which they are drawn( that is, they have the same characteristics as
those of the population or are selected in proportion to their numbers in the population.
Sampling Frame:
Usually drawn from the population and it comprises of sampling units
possessing the social characteristics relevant to the research. For example, social class,
background, religious affiliation and educational attainment.
Population:
All the individuals who make up a particular society, group or organization with
a wide range of social characteristics such as sex, religion, age and social class.
CARIBBEAN POPULAR CULTURE
➢ Popular culture may include a range of expressions of creativity that are accessible to,
produced by, and enjoyed by the majority of a society.
➢ Popular culture has been one important means by which, even in days of colonialism
and slavery, people were able to express their identity.
➢ Popular culture helped to preserve parts of the heritage of the various ethnic that were
brought into the region.
➢ Caribbean popular culture in recent years is being marketed all over the world.
➢ Calypso, reggae, carnival, literature and steel pan have not gone unnoticed across the
globe.
➢ Popular culture used to be associated with the grassroots of society, however, within
recent times, a greater appreciation of Caribbean popular culture has developed.
GLOBALIZATION AND CULTURE
Are we witnessing the birth of a single global culture?
Activities which impact the movement towards the global culture:
➢ The Global Economy→
➢ Global Communication→
➢ Global Migration→
Limitations To The Global Culture Thesis
Critics of the global culture have put forward the following criticisms of the global culture
thesis:
- migration to richer countries western
- hegemonisation
- cultural imperialism
- symbols are not shared
- The global culture thesis assumes that people everywhere are able to afford various
new goods and services being traded internationally
ETHICS IN RESEARCH
➢ Obtain people’s consent to participate in the study. Permission must be sought to
record interviews.
➢ Emphasize confidentiality and ensure anonymity. Use pseudonyms where possible.
➢ Participation in and/or knowledge of dangerous and illegal activities implicitly
sanctions bad behaviour.
➢ Be aware to people’s right to privacy. This is a dilemma for covert participant
observers .
➢ Researchers must be aware of the sensitive nature of the topic under study. Dobash
and Dobash used female interviewers for their research on women who had suffered
domestic violence.
➢ Avoid misrepresentation of events. Results should not be manipulated to prove
hypotheses or enhance careers.
➢ Offer special care to those who may feel threatened due to age, status or
powerlessness.
➢ Be aware that funding agencies may set conditions as well as criteria for findings.
➢ Inform respondents of the results of the study, especially if requested. Results must
be truthful and accurate.
➢ Avoid plagiarism. Ensure that research is collected independently.
8.Feminism on socio as a science
Feminists believe that sociology and all other sciences are not objective as they are
controlled by men and thus uphold male values.
interpretivist
- Interpretive theorists
➢ Sociology cannot be studied as a science as humans have consciousness and thus will
not always react in the same manner to external stimuli. This is unlike non-living
things studied in natural sciences. There can therefore be no universal law of human
behaviour. - Weber
➢ Weber adds that it is impossible to study sociology scientifically as to study human
behaviour one must practice ‘verstehen’ which includes ‘placing oneself in the
respondents’ shoes. It is only through this process that the researcher can fully
understand human actions and the meanings behind them. The practice of ‘verstehen’
eliminates the objectivity necessary for scientific study
DURKHEIM’S STUDY OF SUICIDE → A PROOF OF POSITIVIST
METHODOLOGY
pg 43
1970
dependent vs independent
variables
strongest correlation
emprical data
official statistics on suicide (empirical data) which was widely
available in Europe.
multivariate analysis. Durkheim concluded that suicide was caused from two
main factors. These two factors are integration (or a lack of integration) in society and
society’s regulation (or a lack of regulation) of the individual
4.Common Law Unions
➢ Persons live in a nuclear family without being married.
➢ These unions are usually long term, but unfaithfulness usually on the part of the male
is rampant.
➢ Typical of lower- class families but becoming increasingly popular in middle and
upper income families as a prelude to marriage.
Reasons For Matrifocal Family
➢ Herskovits – Retention of African polygamy, where the father had many wives and
played a marginal role in the family.
➢ M.G Smith – Due to the plantation system where planters tried to break up families
and alienate males. The family was therefore and still is largely female headed.
➢ Oscar Lewis- Due to economic factors; males are too poor to look after their families,
so they withdraw from the family; ashamed that they can’t take care of their
responsibilities.
Edith Clarke (My Mother Who Fathered Me)
➢ Family types differ according to social class. Upper class families are usually nuclear,
middle class families are mainly common law and lower class families are single
parent.
➢ Edith Clarke did her study in Jamaica on three communities she called Orange Grove
upper class, Moca- middle class and Sugar Town- lower class.
➢ She explained that it was the pervasive belief that before marriage a man had to
accumulate some amount of material possessions, such as his own house. As many
poor males were unable to do this, marriage become the domain of the upper class.
➢ She adds that lower classes were less open to stigmas against children out wedlock
and that lower class males were free to be more promiscuous as there were no real
repercussions for abandoning his family
Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore
➢ Education systems function for society by ensuring that the most talented gets the
most functional job.
Marxist Perspective
Samuel Bowles & Herbert Gintis
➢ The role of the education system is the reproduction of the capitalist labour force.
➢ It does this via the hidden curriculum which teaches the values and attitudes necessary
to be a part of the exploitive capitalist labour force.
These values include:
➢ Subservience and Docility
➢ Motivation By External Rewards
➢ Fragmentation of Knowledge
➢ Acceptance of Hierarchy
David Hargreaves & Frank Mellor interactionsist on education
➢ Failure or success in the education system is determined by teachers and how they
label students.
➢ On entering the educational system students are labelled by teachers according to
their social background.
The label, according to Cicourel and Kitsuse, becomes the students’ master status i.e.
(they only way in which the student is seen).
➢ The labelling process has three (3) stages: speculation, elaboration ,and
stabilization.
JWD Douglas→ The Home & The School
➢ J. W. B. Douglas and colleagues studied 5362 British children who were born be.
tween March 1-7,1946.
➢ Douglas did a longitudinal study hence the kids were tracked in their educational
progress up to 1962 when they were 16.
➢ Students were divided by ability using many tests including IQ style tests. They were
also divided into four social class groupings. These divisions into groups allowed for
comparisons and contrasts, using statistical work.
➢ Douglas found significant difference in the educational attainment of students who
had the same IQ, but different social classes.
➢ Almost always, the lower class child was performing worse in school than his upper
classmate with the same IQ.
➢ Douglas found that the biggest factor in student attainment was parental involvement
in the child’s education, measured by frequency of visits of the parents to t school.
➢ Lower class students were more likely to fail because their parents were less it volved
in their educational pursuits.
➢ The opposite was true for upper class students whose parents were very involved in
their education and who did much better in school.
Applewaite→Feminist
Girls are encouraged by parents and teachers to do well academically, boys don’t get as much
encouragement, so will fail in the education system.
➢ Errol Miller who did his study in Jamaica noted that during socialization, high
education achievement was not associated with masculinity, thus boys did not strive
to become successful in the education system.
➢ Boys who are popular are the ones who are athletic, or funny or worse outlaws!
➢ Applewhaite(1998), from her study in Trinidad posits that this is due to the fact that in
and out of school girls were encouraged to be more academically successful than
boys
CHALLENGES FACING THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN THE CARIBBEAN
➢ High incidence of illiteracy and numeracy
➢ Marked gender differences in achievement as girls out-perform boys (Miller, 1991)
➢ Untrained teachers at the Early Childhood, Primary and Secondary levels
➢ Student under-performance at the secondary level
➢ Student repetition of grade levels
➢ Little harmonization of curriculum and assessment across the region
➢ Inadequate policy for recruitment and selection of teachers
➢ Lack of systems of certification, evaluation and licensing of teachers
➢ New jobs associated with higher technology occupations requiring higher entry levels
➢ A mismatch between the graduates and the available jobs
EDUCATIONAL REFORMS IN THE CARIBBEAN
funding
cxc
no of teachers’ colleges
weber and Malinowski Theory
➢ The aim of religion is to help people cope in time of change and anxiety e.g., marriage
and death.
➢ The result is that persons receive the mental stability necessary to exist in a harsh
world, society is therefore stabilized as well.
weber
While the Functionalist and Marxist examine religion as promoting social integration
and preventing social change. Weber argued that the effects of religion on society
could be flexible, that is, it can act as a conservative force as well as an impetus for
change
Weber adopted the approach of trying to understand the subjective meaning of beliefs
for the believers themselves.
➢ Weber was interested in religion as a precursor to capitalism. He did not agree with
Marx’s theory that capitalism existed only because of economic factors. He admitted
Feudal Society
➢ In There is almost zero chance of moving up and down social ladder the poor remain
poor all their lives and are very vulnerable.
➢ In contrast the wealthier classes have more privileges, are less vulnerable and have
better life chances.
➢ Most people though remain in social class.
➢ The feudal system existed in Medieval Europe
so nobility, clergy, peasants
TYPES OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS
➢ Closed
➢ Open.
Closed System of Stratification
➢ A closed system is a rigid system with clearly demarcated boundaries.
➢ Social statuses are strictly defined and determine access to opportunities.
➢ Social position is ascribed at birth (ascribed status).
➢ There is no social mobility from one level to another.
Examples of Closed Stratification Systems
➢ Slavery
➢ Caste system
➢ Medieval/ Feudal/Estate society
closed
quasi caste stratas
Sociological Imagination (C. Wright Mills)
📖 Definition: The ability to link personal troubles to public issues.
📚 Theorist: C. Wright Mills (1959).
✏️ Encourages understanding of individual experiences within the broader societal context.
Culture: Definition and Elements
📖 Definition: A complex system of shared beliefs, behaviors, values, norms, symbols, and material objects.
📚 Theorists: Macionis (culture shapes how we see the world).
✏️ Elements: language, values, norms, symbols, material goods.
Norms, Values, Sanctions: Definitions
📖 Norms: Shared rules or guidelines prescribing appropriate behavior.
📖 Values: Culturally defined standards of desirability and goodness.
📖 Sanctions: Rewards or punishments used to enforce norms.
📚 Theorists: Emile Durkheim (social norms maintain social order).
Status and Roles: Definitions
📖 Status: A recognized social position an individual occupies (can be ascribed or achieved).
📖 Role: Expected behavior attached to a given status.
📚 Theorists: Ralph Linton (status and role concepts); Talcott Parsons (role expectations critical for functioning societies).
Primary and Secondary Social Group
📖 Primary Group: Small, close-knit, personal, enduring relationships (e.g., family, close friends) — Cooley.
📖 Secondary Group: Larger, more impersonal, goal-oriented groups (e.g., coworkers, school classes).
📚 Theorist: Charles Cooley (coined “primary group”).
In-Group vs Out-Group: Definitions
📖 In-Group: A social group to which a person feels they belong and identifies with.
📖 Out-Group: A group a person feels opposition toward or competition with.
📚 Theorists: William Graham Sumner.
Socialization: Types and Agents
📖 Primary socialization: Occurs in early childhood through family.
📖 Secondary socialization: Occurs later through peers, school, media, religion.
📚 Theorists: George Herbert Mead (importance of early socialization for self-concept development).
✏️ Agents: Family, peers, school, mass media, religion.
Mead identified three stages of self-development in childhood:
Play Stage: Children begin to role-play, taking on the roles of others and understanding their perspectives.
Game Stage: Children learn to participate in organized games, understanding the rules and roles of multiple players, and developing an understanding of the “generalized other” (the collective attitudes of society).
Imitation Stage: Children initially learn by imitating the behaviors and gestures of others.
Social Facts: Definition
According to Durkheim, social facts are ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside of individual consciousness and exert a coercive influence over individuals.
Examples of Social Facts:
norms
values
social institutions
social roles
laws
Superstructure and substructure according to Karl Marx
In Marxist theory, the superstructure refers to the non-economic aspects of society, such as culture, law, religion, and the state, that are built upon and influenced by the economic base (or substructure). The superstructure is not merely a reflection of the base, but actively reinforces and maintains the existing economic system, often serving the interests of the ruling class.
Social Structure: Definition
📖 Definition: The organized pattern of social relationships and institutions that together compose society.
📚 Theorists: Emile Durkheim (social facts); Talcott Parsons (social system theory).
✏️ Provides stability and predictability to social life.
Social Change: Definition
📖 Definition: The alteration of social interactions, institutions, stratification systems, and elements of culture over time.
📚 Theorists: Karl Marx (class struggle as driver of social change); Max Weber (ideas and values can cause change).
✏️ Examples: industrialization, globalization, movements for rights.
Social Order: Structure, Function, Power
📖 Social Order: How society remains stable and organized.
📖 Structure: Framework of social institutions (Functionalist view).
📖 Function: Contributions of parts to overall stability (Durkheim).
📖 Power: Ability to achieve goals despite resistance (Max Weber).
📚 Theorists: Durkheim (order through solidarity); Weber (power shapes order).
Consensus Theory (Functionalism)
📖 Definition: A macro‐perspective viewing society as an integrated whole in which institutions work together to maintain stability and solidarity.
📚 Key Thinkers: Émile Durkheim (value consensus), Talcott Parsons (AGIL model).
✏️ Core Idea: Shared norms and values bind members into a harmonious “social organism.”
🎯 Function: Explains social order as the product of interdependent institutions (family, education, religion).
Conflict Theory (Marxism)
📖 Definition: A macro‐perspective seeing society as composed of groups competing for scarce resources and power.
📚 Key Thinkers: Karl Marx (class struggle, bourgeoisie vs proletariat), Friedrich Engels (family & property).
✏️ Core Idea: The economic “base” shapes the societal “superstructure”; ruling class interests dominate.
🎯 Function: Highlights inequality, exploitation, and the potential for revolutionary social change.
Symbolic Interactionism
📖 Definition: A micro‐perspective focusing on how people use symbols (language, gestures) in everyday interactions to create social reality.
📚 Key Thinkers: George Herbert Mead (I vs Me; Play & Game), Charles Cooley (Looking Glass Self), Erving Goffman (dramaturgy).
✏️ Core Idea: Society is actively constructed via shared meanings negotiated in face-to-face encounters.
🎯 Function: Explains how self-concept and social structures emerge from ongoing interactions.
Feminist Theory
📖 Definition: A perspective examining how gender, power and patriarchy shape social life and institutions.
📚 Key Thinkers: Simone de Beauvoir (androcentrism), Ann Oakley (gender roles in family), Delphy & Leonard (patriarchy in domestic labor).
✏️ Core Idea: Gender is a fundamental axis of social stratification—women’s experiences reveal power imbalances.
🎯 Function: Critiques traditional theories for ignoring women’s voices and highlights paths to gender equality.
Parsons’ Pattern Variables
📖 Definition: A set of four paired choices describing how roles can be organized in any social system.
Universalism vs Particularism
Achievement vs Ascription
Specificity vs Diffuseness
Affectivity vs Affective Neutrality
📚 Key Thinker: Talcott Parsons.
✏️ Core Idea: Actors choose differently in different cultural contexts (e.g., merit-based vs. status-based roles).
🎯 Function: Helps analyse variations in social relationships (e.g., workplace vs. family).
What do latent and manifest functions prove or help to understand?
🎯 Function: Clarifies why some social phenomena persist even if they seem “non‐functional” at first glance.
Positivism (Auguste Comte)
📖 Definition: The view that social phenomena can be studied with the same scientific methods as natural sciences.
📚 Key Thinkers: Auguste Comte (originator), Émile Durkheim (social facts).
⚙️ Method: Uses quantitative data (statistics, structured surveys, official records).
🎯 When to Use: To test hypotheses about social facts and patterns across large populations.
Interpretivism (Max Weber)
📖 Definition: The view that social reality is constructed through individuals’ subjective meanings.
📚 Key Thinkers: Max Weber (Verstehen), George Herbert Mead (symbolic meanings).
⚙️ Method: Uses qualitative data (unstructured interviews, participant observation).
🎯 When to Use: To understand how people interpret their world and the meanings behind actions.
What is Andocentrism?
Androcentrism is the practice of centering the male experience and perspective as the standard or norm, often overlooking or devaluing the female experience.
Men are often positioned as the gender-neutral standard, while women are seen as gender-specific, leading to the marginalization of female experiences and needs.
Quantitative Research: Definition & Advantages
📖 Definition: Research generating numerical data, often via surveys, official statistics, structured interviews.
✏️ Advantages:
Replicable and reliable across studies.
Cost‐effective for large samples.
Enables statistical analysis and generalization.
Minimizes researcher bias (objectivity).
📚 (Durkheim’s suicide study as exemplar of quantitative approach.)
Qualitative Research: Definition & Advantages
📖 Definition: Research producing descriptive, narrative depth data (e.g., interviews, observations, document analysis).
✏️ Advantages:
High validity—captures participants’ perspectives.
Reveals processes, meanings, and context.
Flexible—researcher can probe and adapt.
Ideal for studying new or complex phenomena.
📚 (Garfinkel’s ethnomethodology; Howard Becker on teacher beliefs ans perceptions or expectations influenced or arising from social biases leading to labelling and self-fulfilling prophecies See all children through the ideal pupil which often exudes middle class norms.)
Triangulation
📖 Definition: The use of two or more research methods or data sources to cross‐check findings.
✏️ How to Use: Combine, for example, surveys (quant) with interviews (qual).
🎯 When to Use: To enhance validity and provide a fuller picture of the phenomenon.
Surveys: Definition & When to Use
📖 Definition: Standardized questionnaires or interviews administered to a large sample.
✏️ Pros: Covers broad populations; quantifiable results.
🔍 When: When you need an overview of attitudes, behaviors, or demographics across a defined group.
Questionnaires: How to Do & Pros/Cons
📖 Definition: Written set of fixed (closed‐ended) or open‐ended questions.
⚙️ How: Distribute by post, online, or in person; pilot‐test for clarity.
✏️ Pros: Cheap, quick for large samples; easy to tabulate.
⚠️ Cons: Low response rates; limited depth; potential misunderstanding.
Structured Interviews: Definition & Pros/Cons
📖 Definition: Face‐to‐face or phone interviews with a fixed set of questions.
✏️ Pros: High reliability; interviewer can clarify questions.
⚠️ Cons: Can feel impersonal; may limit respondents’ spontaneity.
Unstructured Interviews: Definition & Pros/Cons
📖 Definition: Open‐ended, conversational interviews guided by topics, not strict questions.
✏️ Pros: Deep, rich data; builds rapport and trust.
⚠️ Cons: Time‐consuming; data harder to compare; interviewer bias risk.
Focus Groups: Definition & Pros/Cons
📖 Definition: Guided group discussions (6–10 people) on a topic.
✏️ Pros: Generates diverse perspectives; interaction sparks insights.
⚠️ Cons: Groupthink; dominant voices may overshadow quieter respondents.
Document Studies: Definition & Pros/Cons
📖 Definition: Analysis of existing texts (reports, diaries, media, archives).
✏️ Pros: Non‐intrusive; ideal for historical research; cost‐effective.
⚠️ Cons: Potential bias in documents; missing or incomplete data.
Participant Observation: Definition & Pros/Cons
📖 Definition: Researcher joins a group to observe behaviors and interactions firsthand.
✏️ Pros: High validity; captures natural behaviors.
⚠️ Cons: Time‐intensive; potential observer effect; ethical dilemmas in covert work.
Non‐Participant Observation: Definition & Pros/Cons
📖 Definition: Researcher observes a group without direct involvement.
✏️ Pros: Less chance of influencing behavior; more objective.
⚠️ Cons: Misses participants’ perspectives; may misinterpret actions.
Cross‐Sectional vs Longitudinal Studies
📖 Cross‐Sectional: Data collected at one point in time; snapshot of a population.
📖 Longitudinal: Data collected from the same sample over multiple time points.
✏️ When to Use:
Cross‐Sectional: Quick comparison across groups or phenomena.
Longitudinal: Tracking changes and developmental trends over time.
🔵 Quantitative Research Methods:
Collect numerical data; structured; measurable)
Surveys (structured questionnaires)
Structured Interviews
Document Studies
Systematic Sampling
Cross-sectional Studies
Unstructured Interviews
Focus Groups
Participant Observation
Non-Participant Observation
Snowball Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Document Studies
Longitudinal Studies
Plantation Society Theory (Beckford & Horowitz)
Caribbean culture today shaped by plantation slavery system.
George Beckford & Horowitz (1972): Caribbean divided into two groups — a small, free, ruling elite (white) and a large, unfree mass (black).
Mainstream culture = white elite values, imposed on black majority.
Deviation (e.g., patois, dancehall) is stigmatized; standard English and carnival celebrated.
Still high dependence on foreign products and foreign investment.
Social stratification based on race and colour.
Plural Society Theory (M.G. Smith)
M.G. Smith: Caribbean is heterogeneous — no shared mainstream culture.
Each racial group (black, white, Chinese, Indian) maintains its own institutions (family, religion, education).
Example: whites — nuclear families, Catholicism; blacks — extended families, Protestantism.
Little shared norms and values → instability and racial tension.
Critiques:
Braithwaite: Caribbean groups share core institutions (e.g., Christianity); thus, society is more homogeneous.
Carl Stone (1973): Stratification today is based on class and occupation, not race or culture.
he’s a MAN
What are two social issues that affect Caribbean families?
breakdown of morals and values.
financial constraints.
law and order.
poverty.
addiction
What is social pathology?
Social pathology refers to the study of societal problems or conditions that are considered undesirable or “diseased” by society, often due to deviations from societal norms or values.
Creole Society Theory (Vernon Braithwaite)
Vernon Braithwaite: Caribbean has developed a unique Creole culture — a blend of African, European, and Asian influences.
Process of Creolization → cultural adaptation and mixing over time.
Caribbean culture is syncretic: shared food, language (patois), religion, dance.
European culture remains dominant (language, religion) due to acculturation during slavery.
African cultural elements also remain strong due to interculturation (mutual cultural exchange).
Simple Random Sampling: Definition, How to Do, When to Use
📖 Definition: Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
⚙️ How to Do: Assign numbers to each member; use random number tables or random generators to pick participants.
🎯 When to Use:
Population is homogeneous.
A statistically representative sample is needed.
Ideal for large, accessible populations.
Stratified Random Sampling: Definition, How to Do, When to Use
📖 Definition: Population is divided into subgroups (strata) based on key characteristics (e.g., race, gender) and random samples are taken from each.
⚙️ How to Do: Identify relevant strata → randomly sample proportionally from each group.
🎯 When to Use:
When researchers want to ensure all important subgroups are represented.
Useful if subgroups differ significantly.
Snowball Sampling: Definition, How to Do, When to Use
📖 Definition: Participants recruit future participants from among their acquaintances.
⚙️ How to Do: Start with a few known individuals → ask them to recommend others → network grows.
🎯 When to Use:
Researching hard-to-reach or hidden populations (e.g., drug users, undocumented immigrants).
No accessible sampling frame.
Systematic Sampling: Definition, How to Do, When to Use
📖 Definition: Selecting every nth person from a list after a random start.
⚙️ How to Do: Create a list → choose a random starting point → select every 5th, 10th, etc., participant.
🎯 When to Use:
Large, organized populations (e.g., school registers).
Faster and easier than random sampling but risk of periodicity bias.
Quota Sampling: Definition, How to Do, When to Use
📖 Definition: Researcher identifies relevant categories (e.g., age, gender) and selects participants to fill quotas for each category.
⚙️ How to Do: Identify categories → determine quotas → select participants non-randomly until quotas are filled.
🎯 When to Use:
Need quick, representative samples without random selection.
Used in market research, public opinion polling.
Convenience Sampling: Definition, How to Do, When to Use
📖 Definition: Selecting individuals who are easiest to reach.
⚙️ How to Do: Choose participants based on proximity, availability, or willingness.
🎯 When to Use:
Exploratory research.
Pilot studies.
When time/resources are limited — least scientific method.
Family: Definition
📖 Definition: A social institution found in all societies that unites individuals into cooperative groups to oversee the bearing and raising of children.
📚 Theorists: George Murdock (1949) — “A social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction.”
✏️ Key functions: reproduction, socialization, emotional support, regulation of sexual behavior, social placement.
Types of Families: Caribbean Context
📖 Nuclear family: Two generations — parents and children (typical among white elites, M.G. Smith).
📖 Vertical –or horizontal– Extended family: Several generations living together or nearby (common in Caribbean black communities).
📖 Single-parent family: One parent raising children alone (especially matrifocal families in Caribbean context).
📖 Joint family: Multiple married couples and generations living together (more common in traditional Asian families).
📖 Reconstituted family: Step-families formed after remarriage.
Religion: Definition
📖 Definition: A unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things that unite believers into a single moral community.
📚 Theorists: Emile Durkheim (The Elementary Forms of Religious Life).
✏️ Functions: provides meaning, reinforces social solidarity, social control, emotional support.
Types of Religious Organizations
📖 Church: Large, bureaucratic religious organization, integrated into mainstream society.
📖 Sect: A breakaway group from a church, often with a focus on restoring “pure” faith (e.g., early Methodists).
📖 Cult: Small, new religious movement outside mainstream traditions, often charismatic leader-driven.
📖 Denomination: Mid-sized, mainstream religious organization that accepts religious pluralism.
Types of Belief Systems
📖 Animism: Belief that spirits inhabit natural objects (trees, animals).
📖 Naturism: Belief that natural phenomena (like rivers, mountains) have divine properties.
📖 Polytheism: Belief in many gods.
📖 Monotheism: Belief in one god.
Education: Definition
📖 Definition: A formal process by which society transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, customs, and values from one generation to another.
📚 Theorists: Emile Durkheim — education as “the transmission of society’s norms and values.”
✏️ Functions: socialization, social placement, social integration, cultural innovation, latent functions like forming peer relationships.
Development of Caribbean Education: Key Phases
📖 Post-Emancipation: Missionary-led basic education for freed slaves (religious bias).
📖 Post-Independence: Expansion of state-run education to promote nation-building.
📖 Decolonization: Shift toward Caribbean-centered curriculum and regional institutions (e.g., UWI).
📖 21st Century: Increased focus on technology integration and distance learning.
Social Stratification: Definition
📖 Definition: A system by which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy based on wealth, power, and prestige.
📚 Theorists: Karl Marx (class conflict), Max Weber (multidimensional stratification: class, status, party).
✏️ Stratification leads to structured inequalities among groups.
Class: Definition
📖 Definition: A group of people who share a similar economic position in terms of wealth, income, and occupation.
📚 Theorists: Karl Marx (bourgeoisie vs proletariat); Weber (market situation and lifestyle differences).
✏️ Class can influence lifestyle, opportunities, education, and health.
Race: Definition
📖 Definition: social construct based on perceived physical characteristics that members of a society consider important.
📚 Theorists: W.E.B. Du Bois (racial consciousness); Critical Race Theorists.
✏️ Race becomes a basis for social division and inequality.
Ethnicity: Definition
📖 Definition: Shared cultural practices, heritage, experiences and distinctions that set apart one group of people from another based more on personal identification.
✏️ Includes language, religion, traditions, and ancestry.
📚 (Used in Caribbean stratification: different ethnic groups — Afro-Caribbean, Indo-Caribbean.)
Gender: Definition
📖 Definition: The social and cultural differences attached to being male or female, distinct from biological sex.
📚 Theorists: Simone de Beauvoir (The Second Sex); Judith Butler (gender performativity).
✏️ Gender roles contribute to stratification in income, power, and prestige.
Status: Ascribed and Achieved: Definitions
📖 Ascribed Status: Social position assigned at birth (e.g., race, royalty).
📖 Achieved Status: Social position earned through personal effort (e.g., occupation, education).
📚 Theorists: Ralph Linton (1936) — distinction between ascribed and achieved status.
✏️ Status affects access to resources and opportunities.
Social Mobility: Definition and Types
📖 Definition: Movement of individuals or groups within a system of social stratification.
✏️ Types:
Horizontal Mobility: Movement within the same status level (e.g., teacher to another school).
Vertical Mobility: Movement up or down in status (e.g., janitor to manager).
Intergenerational Mobility: Changes between generations (e.g., child of farmer becomes doctor).
Intragenerational Mobility: Changes within a person’s own lifetime.
Open vs Closed Stratification Systems
📖 Open System: Allows social mobility (e.g., class system — movement possible based on merit).
📖 Closed System: Mobility severely restricted or impossible (e.g., caste system — ascription determines position).
📚 Theorists: Functionalists emphasize meritocracy in open systems; Marxists critique persistent barriers to mobility.
✏️ Caribbean societies evolved from closed (plantation) to more open (post-Independence) systems.
Positivist View: Sociology as a Science
📖 Definition: Positivists believe sociology should adopt methods of the natural sciences.
📚 Theorists: Auguste Comte (father of positivism), Émile Durkheim.
✏️ Why?
Sociology uncovers social laws through observation and statistics.
Research should be objective, measurable, and value-free.
🧪 Study: Durkheim’s Suicide (1897) — used statistical analysis to find social causes (e.g., social integration).
Interpretivist View: Sociology is Not a Science
📖 Definition: Interpretivists argue sociology studies meaning, not natural laws.
📚 Theorists: Max Weber (Verstehen — empathetic understanding), George Herbert Mead.
✏️ Why?
Human beings have consciousness — unlike objects in natural science.
Methods should explore subjective meanings (e.g., interviews, participant observation).
🧪 Critique: Statistics don’t reveal true social motives; context matters more than numbers.
Durkheim’s Suicide Study (1897)
📖 Aim: Show that even highly personal acts like suicide have social causes.
📚 Method: Used official statistics across countries → found patterns (higher suicide rates among Protestants than Catholics).
✏️ Conclusion: Social integration and regulation affect individual behavior.
🎯 Significance: Proof for Positivists that sociology can reveal social laws objectively.
❗ Criticisms: Interpretivists (e.g., Douglas, Atkinson) argue official suicide stats are socially constructed, not objective facts.
Postmodernist and Realist Critiques of Sociology as a Science
📖 Postmodernists (Lyotard): Science itself is just one narrative among many; sociology doesn’t need to imitate science.
📖 Realists (Bhaskar, Sayer): Sociology can be scientific by studying underlying structures (e.g., class, patriarchy) even if they are unobservable.
✏️ Conclusion: Sociology can be “scientific” in investigating causal mechanisms without needing experiments like natural sciences.
Summary: Perspectives on Sociology as a Science
Positivists (Comte, Durkheim) YES Social laws exist and can be studied scientifically Durkheim’s Suicide Study
Interpretivists (Weber, Mead) NO Human meanings can’t be measured like physical phenomena Verstehen, symbolic interaction
Realists (Bhaskar, Sayer) SOMEWHAT Can study causal forces even if unobservable Study of capitalism, patriarchy
Postmodernists (Lyotard) NO Science is just another way of storytelling Knowledge is fragmented
Define matrifocality and describe the matrifocal family in Caribbean society.
📖 Matrifocality: A family structure centered around the mother; the father may be absent or play a marginal role.
📚 In the Caribbean: Common due to historical impacts of slavery, where men were often absent from family life (enslaved, migrated, marginalized).
✏️ Matrifocal families are strong in Afro-Caribbean communities, especially among lower-income groups.
🏝️ Example: Jamaican and Trinidadian communities where grandmothers and mothers head households.
How has education developed in the Caribbean society?
📖 Post-Emancipation: Missionaries provided basic education mainly for freed slaves (religious bias, racial control).
📖 Post-Independence (1960s onward): Governments expanded access to education for nation-building (e.g., universal primary education in Trinidad, Jamaica).
✏️ Despite expansion, education remains stratified by class and race — elite private schools dominate outcomes.
🧠 Contemporary: Girls now outperform boys statistically in CXC and CAPE; literacy gaps still persist, especially in rural areas.
How is the hidden curriculum seen in Caribbean schools?
📖 Hidden Curriculum: Unofficial lessons about discipline, hierarchy, obedience taught through school culture, not official syllabus (Bowles and Gintis).
📚 Caribbean context:
Strict school uniforms enforce discipline and conformity.
Respect for authority is heavily emphasized (mirrors colonial hierarchies).
Language: speaking patois/Creole discouraged; Standard English promoted (echoes colonial past).
🏝️ Example: Trinidad and Jamaican schools rewarding neatness, obedience over creativity.
Why do girls statistically outperform boys in Caribbean education?
📚 Findings from PDF:
Girls internalize expectations for neatness, obedience, discipline — valued traits in Caribbean education systems.
Boys often resist authority more; school culture penalizes this (labelling as “troublemakers”).
Caribbean gender norms still value male “outdoor” success (sports, hustling) more than academic excellence.
✏️ Consequence: Higher female enrollment at UWI campuses; male underachievement rising concern.
What are the Functionalist and Marxist views on education in Caribbean society?
:
📚 Functionalists (Parsons, Durkheim):
Education socializes students into shared values, promotes meritocracy, selects individuals for societal roles.
Schools prepare youth for work and citizenship in postcolonial Caribbean nations.
📚 Marxists (Bowles and Gintis):
Caribbean schools reproduce class inequality.
Hidden curriculum teaches working-class students discipline for low-status jobs.
Elite schools prepare upper-class students for leadership (Trinidad’s prestige secondary schools).
How has religion been shaped in Caribbean society historically and today?
📖 Colonial Era: Christianity (Catholicism, Anglicanism) spread through slavery, often forcibly.
📖 Post-Emancipation: Rise of Afro-Caribbean religions (Obeah, Rastafarianism, Spiritual Baptists).
✏️ Contemporary: Religious pluralism — Pentecostalism growing rapidly; secularism rising, especially among youth.
📚 Theorists:
Durkheim (social solidarity), Marx (religion as control), Feminists (patriarchy in religious structures).
🏝️ Example: Trinidad’s Spiritual Baptist faith legalized only in 1951 after colonial ban.
How did family forms develop in Caribbean society?
📚 Herzogwitz: Slavery disrupted African kinship systems, resulting in flexible, resilient family forms.
✏️ Outcomes:
Matrifocality due to male absence.
Extended families as economic survival strategy.
Single-parent households common due to migration, poverty.
📚 Critiques:
Edith Clarke (1957) — Jamaican families are adaptive, not pathological (opposing view to “social pathology” argument).
Postcolonial scholars reject the view that non-nuclear families are deviant.
Why is the nuclear family not universal in Caribbean society?
📚 Reasons:
Legacy of slavery broke traditional nuclear structures.
Economic hardship favors extended and matrifocal forms.
Migration patterns (e.g., mothering from abroad) reshape households.
📚 Theorists: Edith Clarke emphasized family resilience and adaptability, not pathology.
What type of social stratification exists in the Caribbean today?
📖 Type: Open system (mobility possible), but still class, race, and gender inequalities persist.
✏️ Characteristics:
Elite class tied to wealth and lighter skin tones.
Middle class growing through education.
Working class still experiences limited opportunities.
📚 Perspectives:
Functionalists: Stratification necessary to reward talent.
Conflict theorists: Stratification reproduces inequality (class and color barriers persist).
Give an example of stratification or education inequality in Caribbean society.
🏝️ Example:
Trinidadian Education System: Prestige secondary schools (e.g., St. Mary’s, St. Joseph’s Convent) favor middle/upper-class children through SEA exam performance — but access to extra lessons heavily class-biased.
Result: Education seems meritocratic but is actually class-stratified.
🧠 Labelling theory (David Hargreaves & Frank Mellor):
Teachers label working-class Caribbean boys as “troublemakers” or “slow learners.”
Labels lead to self-fulfilling prophecies → reinforcing low achievement.
Define social stratification, social inequality, and social group.
📖 Social Stratification: Society’s categorization of people based on wealth, race, gender, education, occupation, status, or power.
📖 Social Inequality: Unequal distribution of wealth, power, prestige, and opportunities.
📖 Social Group: A broader category — not tied to one factor; based on how society stratifies (race, caste, gender, etc.).
📖 Social Class: Specific type of social group based on income and wealth.
Define status and explain Weber and Parsons’ views.
📖 Status: Level of honor and prestige a person holds in society (Weber).
📖 Ascribed Status: Fixed at birth (e.g., race, sex).
📖 Achieved Status: Gained through effort (e.g., career success).
📚 Weber: Status varies within and between groups (e.g., “new rich” vs “old money”).
📚 Parsons: Industrial societies prioritize achieved status over ascribed.
Define social class according to Marx and Weber.
📚 Marx: Class emerges from economic exploitation — small ruling elite vs large working class (“propertyless workers”).
📚 Weber: Class determined by income, wealth and prestige, honor, and lifestyle.
✏️ Class systems vary by economic and social dimensions.
Who are elites and how do they maintain power?
📖 Elites: Small ruling class that holds power and influence.
📚 Pareto (1963): Elites maintain power through endogamy (marrying within the elite) and superior education.
📚 John Scott (1982): Marxist view — elites dominate political and economic spheres.
🏝️ Caribbean: Elites include white landowners, top professionals, political leaders.
Define race and ethnicity and explain M.G. Smith’s view.
📖 Race: Classification based on physical traits (e.g., skin color).
📖 Ethnicity: Shared cultural traits (e.g., language, religion, nationality).
📚 M.G. Smith: Caribbean societies are racially stratified, with each race having distinct institutions (plural society).
Define sex, gender, and feminist views on gender stratification.
📖 Sex: Biological differences between males and females.
📖 Gender: Socially learned roles and behaviors.
📚 Feminists: Societies are stratified by gender; men dominate (S. Firestone — sex-class system).
📚 Stoller (1968): Gender is culturally, not biologically, determined.
Define social mobility and distinguish vertical, horizontal, intergenerational, intragenerational mobility.
📖 Social Mobility: Movement between social positions in the stratification system.
📖 Vertical Mobility: Movement up/down social hierarchy (e.g., cane worker’s child becomes a doctor).
📖 Horizontal Mobility: Changing roles without changing status (e.g., accountant to lawyer with same social class).
📖 Intergenerational Mobility: Across generations.
📖 Intragenerational Mobility: Within one’s lifetime.
📚 Open Society: Based on achievement (upward mobility possible).
📚 Closed Society: Based on ascription (limited/no mobility).
Define the caste system and explain its features.
📖 Caste System: Stratification based on birth and ascribed status; rigid hierarchy.
📚 Javaram (1987): Purity and pollution define caste rankings (e.g., Brahmins highest, Panchamas “untouchables” lowest).
✏️ Reinforced by religious rituals and endogamy.
📖 Modern India: Officially outlawed but persists informally.
endogamy
the custom of marrying only within the limits of a local community, clan, or tribe.
Define an open stratification system and cite Giddens’ types.
📖 Open System: Based on economic achievement; flexible class boundaries.
📚 Giddens (2001): Class is an open system; slavery, caste, and estate are closed systems.
✏️ Opportunity for mobility based on effort and achievement.
🏭 Best example: Modern industrial societies.
How did Max Weber explain social stratification?
📚 Weber: Stratification is based on economic power, political power, and status.
✏️ Class Situation: People grouped by chances to access scarce resources (jobs, income, property).
Classes: Propertied upper class, white-collar professionals, petty bourgeoisie, manual workers.
✏️ Status Situation: Prestige and social honor influence life chances (e.g., university professors vs masons).
✏️ Party: Groups with political power to influence others (e.g., politicians).
✅ Strengths: Two-class model (Marx) inadequate; status and power are independent of wealth.
📚 Ryan (1991): Ascriptive (race-based) values declined post-independence.
✏️ Reasons:
Nationalist governments increased public employment.
Expanded education promoted meritocracy.
Exit of British expats and rise of local technocrats.
Black empowerment through NJAC’s activism.
🏝️ Outcome: White male dominance faded; academic achievement and new wealth shaped the new elite.
What did Derek Gordon find about social mobility in Jamaica?
📚 Gordon (1987):
1943–1984: Significant upward mobility into middle and upper-middle classes.
Dynamic capitalism replaced narrow plantocracy.
Black professionals rose from 20% to 42%.
✏️ Limitations: Agricultural and domestic backgrounds faced barriers.
✏️ Elites: Still used privilege to secure advantage for their children.
How do Beckford, Levitt, and Best view Caribbean stratification?
📚 Beckford, Levitt, Best (2001):
Caribbean still structured like a plantation society.
Whites and near-whites remain dominant.
Blacks and Indians occupy the lower strata.
Preference for foreign (European) culture persists.
What did Lloyd Braithwaite observe about Trinidadian stratification?
📚 Braithwaite (1953):
Stratification based chiefly on color and race.
Whites dominated; blacks marginalized.
✏️ Society was plural: each racial group maintained separate institutions and beliefs.
marginalisation/marginalised
the act of treating a person or group as though they are insignificant by isolating and/or disempowering them
What are the effects of social exclusion in the Caribbean?
📚 Working Poor: Employed but barely meeting basic needs.
📚 Underclass: Elderly, unskilled youth, disabled, poor women — face blocked mobility.
✏️ Effects: Social exclusion, crime escalation (Jennifer Mohammed).
✏️ Root cause: Marginalization of lower classes neglected by governments.
how is crime linked to stratification in the Caribbean?
** Jennifer Mohammed:**
Violent crime stems from poverty, hopelessness, and marginalization.
Young men in underclass are especially vulnerable.
🏝️ Examples: Rising crime rates in Trinidad, Jamaica, Guyana.
How does gender affect stratification in the Caribbean?
📚 Findings:
Jamaican women face double the unemployment rate of men despite qualifications.
Women concentrated in narrow job sectors (middle management, service).
Men dominate broader occupational fields; wage gaps persist.
How does the plantation model apply to Caribbean society today?
📖 Plantation society structure persists:
Upper Class: Whites — control wealth and political power.
Intermediate Class: Browns/mulattos — educated, limited power.
Working Class: Blacks — historically uneducated, lacked power.
📚 Examples: French-descended elites (e.g., Beke of Martinique) still control major industries.
How does M.G. Smith explain Caribbean stratification?
📚 M.G. Smith:
Caribbean societies are plural societies — significant cultural and racial diversity.
Different ethnic groups have separate institutions but share political systems.
Cultural and racial divisions cause social inequality and tension.
How is Caribbean society described by Creole theory?
📚 Braithwaite:
Creole society = hybrid, syncretic culture.
Stratification based on ascriptive-particularistic values (color, race).
📚 Ryan:
Post-independence Caribbean shifted toward meritocracy (academic achievement, new wealth), but some ascriptive elements persist.
How was Caribbean society stratified during slavery?
📖 Plantation Society (1640–1838).
📚 Characteristics:
Closed system based on race, class, and color.
Ascribed status determined life chances.
Race and class were linked — whites at the top, blacks enslaved at the bottom.
No social mobility — static, oppressive hierarchy.
How did Caribbean stratification change after slavery?
📖 Post-Emancipation Society.
📚 Changes:
Indentured laborers (Indians, Chinese) imported to Trinidad, Jamaica, British Guiana — placed at the bottom.
Blacks and Indians firmly rooted at the base by 1917.
Some blacks and coloreds (mixed-race) rose into the Middle Class via education.
Some whites slipped into the middle class but remained top earners overall.
✏️ Society still rigidly racialized and stratified.
What changed in Caribbean stratification after World War II?
📖 Post-1945 Developments:
Expansion of primary education; near-universal access achieved.
Secondary education still limited and expensive — access mainly for middle and upper classes.
Religious bodies supported poor but promising students.
✏️ Education became the key to potential social mobility — but opportunity remained scarce.
Concordat Act
The “20% list” in the context of Trinidad and Tobago’s education system, specifically the Secondary Entrance Assessment (SEA), refers to the 20% of places at denominational secondary schools that are not allocated through the SEA. This reserved portion is under the control of the school boards, who can use it to select students based on criteria other than merit, as determined by the 1960 Concordat. The 20% list has been a source of debate, with some arguing it leads to preferential treatment of certain groups and potentially deprives deserving students of places.
The Concordat:
The Concordat was a landmark agreement between the Trinidad and Tobago government and the Roman Catholic Church in 1960, which included provisions for denominational schools to retain a certain percentage of places.
How did independence affect social stratification in the Caribbean?
📖 Post-Independence (1960s–1970s):
Nationalist leaders pushed for universal education and social justice.
Black Power Movement advocated for equality and dismantling racial barriers.
Constitutional changes: Universal adult suffrage, internal self-government.
Emergence of Black Middle Class through education and new jobs.
Move from a closed system (ascriptive) toward a more open stratification system.
✏️ Challenges:
Secondary school places still limited — Common Entrance Exam selected students for scarce spots.
Economic inequality persisted despite political advances.
What did Herskovitz do?
Herskovits was the first prominent white intellectual to declare that black culture in America was “not pathological,” but rather inherently African, and that it had to be viewed within that context.
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Explain Melville Herskovits’ study on African families in the Caribbean.
📚 Who: Melville J. Herskovits — American anthropologist.
📍 Where: Caribbean focus on Suriname, Haiti, Trinidad (fieldwork in 1920s–1930s).
📖 Key Work: The Myth of the Negro Past (1941).
📖 Study Details:
Researched kinship, religion, language, music among African-descended Caribbean communities.
Used ethnographic methods — observation, interviews.
🔎 Findings:
Africans retained cultural practices despite slavery — African kinship structures (e.g., extended families), religious practices (Vodou, Obeah), music, naming patterns.
Caribbean families’ matrifocal and extended structures are adaptations of African models, not evidence of cultural breakdown.
🎯 Impact:
Rejected the theory of “total cultural loss” among African descendants.
Promoted the idea of cultural survival and continuity in Caribbean societies.
Influenced later work on Caribbean identity and Afro-Caribbean pride.
Explain the Social Pathology theories on African families in the Caribbean.
📚 Who: British colonial sociologists and officials (main studies 1940s–1950s).
📍 Where: Mainly Trinidad and Jamaica (before independence).
📖 Key Studies:
The Moyne Commission Report (1938–1945) — Caribbean social conditions post-riots.
Colonial welfare reports on family structures.
📖 Study Details:
Investigated poverty, education, and family life in African-descended communities.
Focused on high rates of single-mother households, informality of unions, poverty.
🔎 Findings (biased):
Labelled Afro-Caribbean family structures as “broken,” “pathological,” and a cause of underdevelopment.
Blamed matrifocality and informality for crime, laziness, and poverty.
🎯 Critiques:
Overlooked the historical impact of slavery and economic marginalization.
Ignored family resilience and adaptation shown by later scholars like Herskovits and Edith Clarke.
Reinforced racist colonial ideologies pushing the nuclear family model as the “civilized” ideal.
