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PGY 412 > Immunology part 2 > Flashcards

Immunology part 2 Flashcards

1
Q

adaptive immunity depends on specific ____ receptors on ___ and ____

A

antigen receptors on T and B lymphocytes

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2
Q

each T or B cell expresses unique _____

A

antigen receptors on the surface

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3
Q

this adaptive system can react against any possible ____

A

antigen

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4
Q

adaptive immune system has tolerance to antigens present on ___

A

our normal cells

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5
Q

the adaptive immune system can develop ____

A

memory

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6
Q

define immunological memory

A

ability to accelerate and improve the response to repeated exposures to the same antigen

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7
Q

two types of adaptive immunity

A

humoral immunity and cell mediated immunity

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8
Q

humoral immunity involves what type of cells

A

B lymphocytes

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9
Q

B lymphocytes respond to antigens and do what?

A

trigger the production of antibodies that are specific to those same antigens

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10
Q

B-lymphocytes turn differentiate in ___ cells that then secret antibodies

A

plasma cells

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11
Q

in cell mediated immunity, what type of cells are involved?

A

cytotoxic T lymphocytes

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12
Q

cytotoxic T-lymphocytes are activated by ___, and then perform what function

A

specific antigens, they then kill the cells and microorganisms bearing the same antigens

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13
Q

what are helper T lymphocytes?

A

they regulate the function of B and cytotoxic T lymphocytes by recruiting and activating phagocytes, particularly macrophages

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14
Q

the two sides of adaptive immunity are not independent from ___ or ____

A

each other or innate immunity; there is interplay between all immunity systems at all times

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15
Q

3 key characteristics of adaptive immune response

A
  1. it is specific to the presenting antigens
  2. it takes time
  3. it has memory
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16
Q

B and T lymphocytes can respond to antigens that are

A

free or present on the surface of viruses, other microorganisms, foreign tissues, or transformed cells

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17
Q

each lymphocyte has receptors that are specific for just ___ ___ of antigen

A

one type

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18
Q

3 stages of adaptive immune response

A
  1. a foreign antigen is identified by a B or T lymphocyte
  2. antigen binds to specific receptor, lymphocyte is activated and under goes colonel expansion
  3. antibody and cytotoxic responses
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19
Q

in stage 2 of the the adaptive immune response, when the lymphocytes proliferate they will be responsible for

A

the 3rd stage, while some of the lymphocytes resulting from division will become memory cells

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20
Q

two signals needed for lymphocyte activation

A
  1. antigen recognition is signal one

2. cytokines produced by other immune cells provide the second signal

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21
Q

B cells transform to ___ cells and produce ____ against the antigen

A

plasma; antibodies

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22
Q

Cytotoxic t tells attack the ______

A

cells bearing the antigen

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23
Q

once the antigen has been eliminated, most of the responding lymphocytes will ____

A

die by apoptosis

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24
Q

after an antigen as been eliminated and the lymphocytes undergo apoptosis, the ____ cells persist and will respond ____ the next time the antigen appears

A

memory; faster

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25
Q

what are they primary lymphoid organs

A

bone marrow and thymus

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26
Q

bone marrow and the thymus are sites for ____

A

lymphocyte production and development

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27
Q

what type of lymphocyte is produced by primary lymphoid organs

A

naive lymphocytes that have not previously been exposed to a specific antigen

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28
Q

the bone marrow produces ___ ___ of lymphocytes

A

all types of lymphocytes

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29
Q

the thymus gland in the upper thorax above the heart completes the development of ____

A

T cells

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30
Q

most lymphocytes reside in ____

A

secondary lymphoid organs

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31
Q

secondary lymphoid organs are positioned to do what

A

survey what is coming into the body

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32
Q

a skin breach may invoke an immune response in the ___ ___ that drain the affected tissues

A

lymph nodes

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33
Q

if the insult it contaminated food, the immune response starts in ____ ____ under the mucosa of the small intestine

A

peyer’s patches

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34
Q

what secondary lymphoid organ responds to blood borne pathogens

A

the spleen filters them and starts the immune response

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35
Q

the ___ and ___ detect and respond to microbes that enter via the respiratory tract

A

tonsils and adenoids

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36
Q

activated lymphocytes proliferate through

A

colonel expansion, which means that all clones have the same antigen specificity

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37
Q

clonal expansion increases the number of __

A

cells that can act against the antigen that initiated the response

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38
Q

adaptive immune responses are self limited, meaning what?

A

they decline as the infection is eliminated by apoptosis, while some cells survive to provide immunological memory

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39
Q

the duration of each phase of the immune response depends on ____

A

the initial stimulus

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40
Q

the adaptive immune system improves with repeated _____

A

exposure to the same antigen

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41
Q

the initial exposure to an antigen is called what

A

the primary immune response and is mediated by naive lymphocytes

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42
Q

secondary immune responses are what

A

subsequent encounters with the same antigen that are faster, stronger, and better able to eliminate the antigen

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43
Q

secondary immune responses result from what

A

the activation of memory lymphocytes

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44
Q

b lymphocytes recognize ___ and ___ antigens

A

soluble and surface antigens

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45
Q

cytotoxic t lymphocytes recognize antigens presented by ___, ___, or ___ cells

A

infected, foreign, or transformed cells

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46
Q

After activation and expansion, ____ cells destroy the antigen-bearing cells directly

A

cytotoxic t cells

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47
Q

helper T-lymphocytes recognize antigens displayed by ___ cells

A

antigen presenting cells

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48
Q

helper t lymphocytes secrete ____ which stimulates

A

secrete cytokines to stimulate B and T lymphocytes

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49
Q

what are regulatory T cells

A

they limit the activation of other lymphocytes, specifically T cells, to prevent autoimmunity

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50
Q

natural killer cells recognize ___ or ___ cells, like cytotoxic t cells, but their responses are not ___

A

infected or transformed cells but their responses are not specific

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51
Q

natural killer cells are considered to be a part of the ___ immunity system

A

innate

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52
Q

the innate immune system recognizes generic markers called ___ and ____, while the adaptive immune system recognizes each ___ specifically

A

PAMPs and DAMPs; antigen

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53
Q

each lymphocyte clone has receptors specific to how many antigens

A

1 antigen

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54
Q

there are billions to hundreds of billions of clone lymphocytes, which means that they can response to ___

A

that corresponding number of antigens

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55
Q

the antigen receptors in b-lymphocytes are ____ which are bound to the ___

A

immunoglobins which are bound to the membrane

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56
Q

the immunoglobin receptors on the b lymphocytes are the same immunoglobins that will be

A

secreted as antibodies by the plasma cells

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57
Q

these immunoglobins of the b cells recognize what

A

proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and simple chemical groups

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58
Q

T cell receptors are also ____ proteins that recognize ___ displayed on ____ cells

A

membrane proteins that recognize peptides displayed on antigen presenting cells

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59
Q

the antigen receptors are associated with ___ that act to to do what?

A

other proteins that initiate intracellular signals when an antigen is recognized

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60
Q

the intracellular signals produced when an antigen is recognized can cause lymphocytes to do what

A

divide, differentiate, or under some conditions, die

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61
Q

the adaptive immune system discriminates between __ and __

A

self and non self

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62
Q

the recognition of self and non self antigens is based on the display of

A

peptides bound to proteins of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

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63
Q

all nucleated cells express what type of MHC

A

MHC 1

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64
Q

MHC 1 complexes display peptides of abnormal or normal cell proteins on the surface?

A

normal cell proteins

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65
Q

if the protein displayed on the MHC 1 complex is abnormal, this allows the adaptive immune system to do what?

A

determine if the cell’s protein production machinery has been taken over by an intracellular infection or cancer

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66
Q

if peptides presented on the surface are normal, the cell is ____ by the immune system; if the fragments are abnormal, that initiates a ___ ___ response that kills the abnormal cell

A

ignored; cell-mediated response

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67
Q

class 2 MHC proteins are expressed only by

A

antigen presenting cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells and B cells

68
Q

what do antigen presenting cells do

A

they capture and process foreign matter and then display their peptides coupled to class 2 MHC to helper t cells

69
Q

the recognition of a displayed peptide by a helper T cell as non self does what?

A

triggers an immune response, initiating both cell mediated and antibody mediated responses

70
Q

what are MHC polymorphisms

A

differences in class 1 and 2 MHC from person to person that results in variation in how the antigens are processed and presented to the immune system

71
Q

how do MHC polymorphisms explain why a recipient might reject a donor organ?

A

because the recipient and donor do not match perfectly due to the type 1 MHC from the transplanted organ cells presenting the incorrect “self” antigens to the recipient’s immune system

72
Q

there is individual variation in microbial antigenic peptides presented by MHC, what does this mean?

A

that the MHC receptors of 2 different individuals may display different peptides derived from the same virus, generally does not have a large effect in immune response

73
Q

microbial antigens processed by antigen presenting cells enter the class ___ MHC pathway

A

class 2

74
Q

Process of the MHC 2 pathway

A
  1. MHC-antigen complexes are displayed on surface of APC
  2. complex is recognized by helper T cell
  3. activation and expansion
  4. helper T cells stimulate macrophages and enhance activation, expansion and differentiation of B cells into plasma cells that produce and secrete the antigen specific antibody
75
Q

antigens form intracellular microbes or from tumor cells are processed as part of the recycling of cellular components, these peptides are then coupled to what

A

class 1 MHC and displayed on the surface for recognition by cytotoxic t lymphocytes

76
Q

in order for the cytotoxic t lymphocytes to be fully activated after identifying an antigen, what needs to happen

A

helper t cells must be activated via the class 2 MHC pathway

77
Q

naive T lymphocytes have to be presented the antigens to start what processes

A

clonal expansion and differentiation into effector and memory cells

78
Q

differentiated effector T cells need to see the ____ again in order to re-activate their functions

A

antigens

79
Q

what are the most effective antigen-presenting cells for naive helper T lymphocytes

A

dendritic cells

80
Q

what antigen presenting cell is abundant in all tissues?

A

macrophages

81
Q

in cell-mediated immune responses, the ___ cells and ___ display the antigens to helper t cells

A

dendritic cells and macrophages

82
Q

when helper t cells are activated they enhance ____ and enhance _____

A

phagocytosis and the humoral immune response

83
Q

b lymphocytes display antigens to ____ cells to enhance the humoral immune response

A

helper t cells

84
Q

dendritic cells that capture antigens at epithelial barriers migrate to where

A

lymph nodes

85
Q

in transit to the lymph nodes, the dendritic cells change from _____ to
____ cells

A

antigen capture to antigen presenting cells

86
Q

macrophages do not migrate, they instead remain in the ___ and present antigens to the ____ cells recruited to the site

A

tissue; T cells

87
Q

activated antigen-presenting cells express non-specific costimulating signals which is a ____ process

A

2 signal process

88
Q

if helper T cells do not work, what does this mean

A

humoral and cell-mediated responses are severely impaired; this is what happens in patients with HIV

89
Q

soluble antigens are picked up by ___ cells residing in the lymph nodes

A

dendritic cells

90
Q

blood-borne antigens are handled by ___ cells in the ____

A

dendritic cells in the spleen

91
Q

humoral immune response begins with the ____ receptor

A

B-cell receptor

92
Q

what is the B-cell receptor composed of

A

4 peptide subunits, two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains

93
Q

the diversity in antigen specificity (the antigen binding site) is created by what

A

the assembly of the gene segments on the receptor

94
Q

each arm of the B receptor has an antigen binding site that is ____ for the B cell where the receptor resides

A

unique/specific

95
Q

when the specific antigen binds to the b cell receptors, other members of the receptor complex ____ and ___, initiate intracellular signaling pathway

A

IG-alpha and IG-beta

96
Q

IG-alpha and IG-beta initiating the intracellular signaling pathway of the B cell does what

A

activates the B cell

97
Q

the arrangement of the receptor interacting with the receptor complex of the B cell separates what

A

antigen recognition taking place at the arms of the receptor and is specific, from the signal transduction, mediated by units that are not specific

98
Q

the stem of the immunoglobin on the b cell is known as the ___ region, or ___

A

constan region or Fc

99
Q

the constant region is important for what

A

interaction of immunoglobins with other components of the immune systems

100
Q

the constant region determines the ____

A

immunoglobin class

101
Q

how many immunoglobin classes are there?

A

5: A, D, E, G, M- each one serving a function

102
Q

process for humoral immunity (steps)

A
  1. naive B lymphocytes use IgM and IgD antigen receptors
  2. b lymphocytes are activated by the antigens that are specific for their receptors
  3. full b lymphocyte activation leas to proliferation of antigen specific cells (clonal expansion)
  4. differentiation of b cells into plasma cells
  5. plasma cells secrete antibodies that have the same specificity as the receptors on the naive b cells
103
Q

during the differentiation process of humoral immunity, some b lymphocytes switch to a different Ig class that has a ____ affinity for the antigen

A

greater

104
Q

when b lymphocytes switch to a different Ig class with a greater affinity for the antigen, this is called what

A

class switching and affinity maturation, producing antibodies with improved antigen specificity

105
Q

during the differentiation stage of humoral immunity, some b cells differentiate into ___ cells

A

memory

106
Q

antibodies do or do not kill microbes

A

they DO NOT kill microbes directly

107
Q

how do antibodies destroy microbes if they do not kill them

A

they mark them for destruction by phagocytosis, by complement, and by natural killer cells

108
Q

bound antibodies act as ___

A

opsonins

109
Q

phagocytes have receptors for the ___ portion of immunoglobins

A

Fc

110
Q

when antibodies bind to antigens on a microbe, phagocytes bind ___ region and that triggers ____

A

Fc regions and that triggers phagocytosis

111
Q

antibodies initiate the classical ___ pathway

A

complement

112
Q

the classical complement pathway includes ___ and the ___ ___ complex

A

C3b (another opsonin) and the membrane attack complex

113
Q

antibodies neutralize microbes and toxins by doing what

A

blocking surface antigens needed for their function

114
Q

natural killer cells have one special response to antibodies, which is?

A

they react to the c3b bound to bacteria by releasing cytotoxic chemicals

115
Q

natural killer cells reacting to the C3b bound to bacteria is a process called what

A

antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, which is an example of an innate immune response that is made specific by the antibodies

116
Q

when is IgM made and what does it do

A

made when naive b cells are first activated and is good at activating complement

117
Q

IgG is most abundant where

A

in the blood

118
Q

IgG is a good ____, ____, and ____

A

opsonin, complement activator, and initiator of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity

119
Q

IgG crosses the ___, which gives the fetus a head start on immunity

A

placenta

120
Q

which Ig class is the most abundant

A

IgA because it is present in mucosal surfaces and secretions

121
Q

IgA provides humoral immunity where

A

in the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts

122
Q

IgE antibodies are important for the immune defense against what

A

large parasites

123
Q

aside from fighting large parasites, IgE is also involved in

A

allergic reactions

124
Q

T-cell receptors are two chain membrane proteins with ____ regions

A

antigen specific regions

125
Q

T cell receptors have two heterodimeric forms, ___ and ___

A

alpha-beta or gamma-delta

126
Q

what creates the diversity needed to respond to all possible antigens in the T cell receptors

A

the genes for alpha, beta, gamma, and delta are assembled by mixing gene segments

127
Q

the T cell receptors are linked to ___ that do what

A

other integral membrane proteins that iniate a signaling cascade when the antigen binds to the receptor

128
Q

The t cell receptor does not combine with the antigen directly, it instead does what

A

interact with antigen present by an MHC protein, either type 1 or 2, and then the T cell receptor interacts with the whole complex (including coreceptors such as Cd4 or Cd8)

129
Q

CD4 is a coreceptor for what type of t cells

A

helper t cells

130
Q

CD8 is a coreceptor for what type of t cell

A

cytotoxic t cells

131
Q

what is the job of the co receptors of the t cell

A

to strengthen the interaction of the t cell with the MHC complex

132
Q

helper t cells are activated in 3 steps:

A
  1. antigen presentation
  2. a co-stimulus given by membrane proteins
  3. the secretion of stimulating cytokines by the antigen presenting cell
133
Q

helper t cells recognize antigens bound to class __ MHC of antigen presenting cells

A

class 2 MHC

134
Q

the helper t cell specific for the antigen bound to an MHC 2 complex is assisted by the ___ marker on the surface of the T cell, which acts to stabilize ___

A

CD4; the interaction with the MHC-antigen complex

135
Q

the helper t cell must also match with other ____ on the antigen presenting cell, and it must receive ___ to be fully activated

A

surface proteins; cytokines

136
Q

B-lymphocytes are ____ ____ cells, with one key difference: ____

A

antigen presenting cells; the antigen binds to the immunoglobin on the surface of the B cell, then the antigen is internalized, processed and attached to the class 2 MHC and displayed

137
Q

the antigen-presenting function of the B-cell is different form the differentiation step into ___ cells, and serves to _____

A

plasma cells; amplify the response to the antigen

138
Q

once the antigen is displayed on a B-cell, the ____ can interact with it

A

helper T cell

139
Q

once activated, the helper T cells secrete ____ that coordinate and enhance the adaptive and innate immune responses

A

cytokines

140
Q

activation of helper t cells is necessary for the normal response of ___ cells and ____

A

B cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes

141
Q

the process of antigen presentation to cytotoxic t cells serves to identify ____

A

intracellular antigens

142
Q

antigens come from where

A

intracellular microorganisms or cancer proteins

143
Q

antigens are processed and presented by the class ____ MHC on the membrane, where they are matched by the specific receptor on the corresponding cytotoxic T cell

A

class 1 MHC

144
Q

viral infections and cancer transformation make the affected cells produce and display ___

A

inappropriate antigens

145
Q

____ cells identify the foreign antigens on the surface of cells and at the same time, ___ cells are activated by macrophages that process the foreign antigens independently

A

cytotoxic t cells; helper t cells

146
Q

activated helper t cells release ____ and other cytokines

A

interleukin 2

147
Q

what is interleukin 2

A

an autocrine signal for helper t cell proliferation and a paracrine signal for cytotoxic t cell activation

148
Q

activated cytotoxic t cells by helper t cells bind to ___

A

target cells

149
Q

once in close contact with the target cell, cytotoxic t cells release

A

perforin, a protein that creates a pore on the target’s membrane

150
Q

cytotoxic t cells also release ___, which does what

A

granzyme, which is a collection of cytotoxic enzymes that trigger cell death

151
Q

immunological memory allows the adaptive immune system to respond ____ to repeated exposures to the same infection

A

faster and better

152
Q

during an infection, the humoral response to a first encounter takes time, but exposure to the same antigen activates

A

memory B cells and that gives a faster and stronger immune response, mostly with IgG antibodies with higher affinity for the antigens

153
Q

T cell memory follows the same dynamics as B-cell, which is?

A

the first exposure to an antigen results in the creation of a pool of memory cells for cytotoxic and helper t cells

154
Q

how does a vaccine take advantage of immunological memory

A

by serving as the initial exposure to an antigen so that subsequent exposures trigger a faster and stronger immune response, preventing the onset of disease

155
Q

the assignment of antigen specificity to T lymphocytes depends on the random arrangement of gene segments during their production and because of the randomness, what can happen

A

self-reactive lymphocytes are always produced during development and must be eliminated

156
Q

where does the process of eliminating self reacting t lymphocytes take place?

A

thymus

157
Q

what happens in the thymus to eliminate these self reactive t lymphocytes

A

the cytotoxic and helper t cells are presented with self-antigens and if they interact too strongly or too weakly, they are eliminated

158
Q

the process of eliminating self reactive t lymphocytes is called what

A

central tolerance because it is established in the organ where the t lymphocytes complete their development

159
Q

central tolerance to self antigens during fetal and early post-natal life depends on what two processes

A
  1. clonal deletion; the elimination by apoptosis of T cells whose receptors bind to self proteins
  2. development of regulatory t cells that recognize self antigens and once in circulation, block the activation of harmful self-reacting lymphocytes
160
Q

failure of self-tolerance leads to what

A

auto-immune diseases

161
Q

if we learn how to induce self-tolerance, we can do what?

A

prevent or control unwanted immune reactions, examples: allergies and autoimmune diseases, rejection of organ transplants

162
Q

HIV targets the cell type ____

A

helper t cells by using CD4 to gain access into the cells; patients can no longer coordinate immune systems

163
Q

HIV can remain ___ for a long time

A

latent

164
Q

eventually, the HIV virus replicates ___ and manages to ____ the immune system

A

quickly and manages to avoid the immune system

165
Q

as HIV replicated, ___ cells are lost and once that cell count becomes low enough, the patient becomes susceptible to opportunistic infections and cancers and HIV becomes ___

A

helper t cells; AIDS

166
Q

patients with IBD, Chron’s disease, and ulcerative colitis have an _____

A

uncontrolled chronic inflammation

167
Q

patients with IBD, Chron’s or ulcerative colitis have a predisposition to ____ inflammatory responses to the microbiome of the gut

A

exaggerated

PGY 412 (2 decks)

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