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Immunology 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What areas of medicine can progress in our of understanding of immunology?

A

Infectious disease
Cancer
Autoimmune diseases
And TRANSPLANTATION!

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2
Q

What type of revolutionary treatment changed the face of medicine in the late 1940’s-1960’s? And what diseases have they nearly eradicated?

A

Vaccination.

Measles, Polio and Diptheria

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3
Q

What are the mechanical, chemical and microbiological barriers of the skin, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, urogenital tract and eyes?

A

Skin:
Mech- flow of fluid, perspiration and shedding of skin
Chemical- The Sebum, (fatty acids, lysozyme lactic acid)
Microbio- Flora of the skin

Gastro:
Mech- flow of fluid, mucus, food and saliva
Chem - acidity and enzymes I.e. Proteases
Micro- flora of gut

Respiratory tract:
Mech- flow of fluid and mucus (by Cillia) and air flow
Chem- lysozyme in nasal secretions
Microbio- flora of the respiratory tract

Urogenital tract:
Mech- flow of fluid, mucus, urine, sperm
Chem- acidity in vaginal secretions, spermine and zinc in sperm
Microbio- flora of UT

Eyes:
Mech- flow of fluid, tears
Chem- lysozyme in tears
Microbio- flora of eyes

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4
Q

Define innate immunity

A

Cells and components of the immune system which act without prior exposure to pathogens

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5
Q

Define complement

A

Inactive circulating serum proteins that act on pathogen cell membranes. When activated an amplified cascade effect can cause proteolytic enzymes to induce inflammation and cytotoxicity etc.

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6
Q

Describe the 4 basic steps of Opsonisation. (Of the complement system)

A
  1. Bacterial cell surface promotes complement cleavage and activation
  2. One complement fragment binds Covalently to bacterium, other ATTRACTS an EFFECTOR cell (e.g. Phagocyte)
  3. The complement receptor on the effector cells binds to complement fragment bound on bacterium
  4. Effector cell engulfs bacterium, kills it and breaks it down in the phagosome
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7
Q

What are the first three steps of complement defined to be and what is the last?

A

1-3: pathogen recognition mechanisms

4: effector mechanism

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8
Q

Define adaptive immunity!

A

Expansion of a population of cell with receptors for a particular infectious agent with exposure beforehand (normally a features of ‘higher’ organisms)

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9
Q

Define antigen!

A

Any molecule that stimulates an immune response, can be a protein or a lipid/glycolipid. MUST have a defined STRUCTURE and be FOREIGN

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10
Q

At what areas do most infections occur?

A

Across mucosal surfaces. YUM!

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11
Q

What type of bacteria does the lysozyme of mucosal surfaces break down? Gram negative , or gram positive?

A

Gram positive

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12
Q

Outline the basics of inflammation!

A
  1. Break in skin (wound) allows entry of bacteria into skin tissue, alerting nearby (resident) effector cells to express cytokines
  2. Vasodilation and increased VASCULAR permeability allow flow of fluid, protein (thrombin etc) and INFLAMMATORY CELLS from the blood into the skin tissue
  3. Inflammation occurs causing, swelling, heat, redness and pain
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13
Q

Compare the recognition mechanisms of innate and adaptive immunity with the following four criteria (time of response, type of response I.e. Fixed or variable, specificity and performance during response)

And give ONE common feature of both

A

Time: innate= hours (fast) adaptive= days/weeks (slow)
Type: innate = fixed . Adaptive= variable
Specificity: innate= limited number of specificities, adaptive= numerous highly selective specificities
Performance: I= constant, A= improves during response

ONE similarity is that they have similar mechanisms of pathogen destruction

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14
Q

What is the name of lymphatic cells that give rise to huge number of different lymphocytes during development ? What happens to these lymphocytes?

A

Progenitor cells.
Once infection occurs, lymphocyte that has correct receptor for antigen recognition is selected for proliferation upon which the infection is stifled

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15
Q

What is haematopoiesis?

A

The formation of blood cellular components.

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16
Q

What is interesting about haematopoiesis during the stages of the human life cycle?

A

It occurs in different organs. Yolk sac in zygote, liver and spline in feutus and bone marrow in children to adults

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17
Q

What do transcription factors do to haematopoiesis?

A

The specify the lineage of lymphoid differentiation

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18
Q

What affects the expression of transcription factors?

A

Cytokines!

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19
Q

What are the three most abundant immune cells (leukocytes) in the blood and what are their half lives? ⏳

A

1st. Neutrophil (40-70%) 6-12 hours
2nd. Lymphocyte (e.g. B cells) 20-50% 7-20 days (but memory lymphocytes can survive for years/lifetime
3rd. Eosinophil (1-6%) 30 mins

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20
Q

What is the process of optimisation? ⏳⏰⌚️

A

Coating of pathogen/bacterium surface with tags (complement or antibodies) that increase the likelihood of uptake (phagocytosis)

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21
Q

What are some of the structural features of a macrophage?

A
  • phagosome
  • lysosome
  • phagolysosome
  • pseudopodia (POoh DIA)
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22
Q

What role do Macrophages play in immunity?

A

Phagocytosis and killing of microorganisms and Stimulation of inflammation.

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23
Q

How do macrophages induce inflammation?

A

Component of Bacteria binds to SIGNALLING receptor of macrophage, stimulates the expression and release of inflammatory cytokines.

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24
Q

What percentage of deaths worldwide is attributed to infections?

A

10%

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25
Q

Is adaptive immunity exclusive to vertebrates, true of false?

A

True!

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26
Q

What is the medical term for when the immune system cannot mount a sufficient defence? And give two examples.

A

Immune deficiency.

  1. Human immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
  2. SCID ?
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27
Q

What is the term when the immune system beignets to target and attack the host? And give one example.

A

Autoimmunity, example is Diabetes type 1

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28
Q

Define serum.

A

The non-cellular liquid fraction of blood after coagulation (without clotting factors)

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29
Q

Define Immunoglobulin.

A

A serum fraction that (gamma globulin) that has antitoxin, precipitin (precipitation In a tin) and agglutin (a glued tin).

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30
Q

What is the difference between an immunoglobulin and an antibody?

A

An immunoglobulin can come in two forms. One is membrane bound called surface Immunoglobulin and the other is secreted and is termed secreted immunoglobulin (aka antibody) (Y)

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31
Q

Define an Epitope.

A

the molecular sidechain of an antigen that each antibody attaches to; there can be many epitopes on a single antigen

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32
Q

Name two previous theories of immunology and outline them.

Also what is the current and most likely nature of immunology, give the name and details

A
  1. The instructional theory: antigens made antibodies fold around them in a specific way. This is false
  2. The selection theory: the body makes every possible chemical side chain on antibodies and when the antigen arrives it matches it’s epitope to the correct antibody side chains.

The current theory: monoclonal selection: which states that an individual lymphocyte (specifically, a B cell) expresses receptors specific to the distinct antigen, determined before the antibody ever encounters the antigen. Binding of Ag to a cell activates the cell, causing a proliferation of clone daughter cells. ????—> ????

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33
Q

What are four common mechanisms and components of the innate IS?

A 
1.Phagocytic cells (macrophages, neutrophils; more generally,
antigen-presenting cells (APCs))
2. Barriers (e.g. skin)
3. Antimicrobial compounds
4. Inflammation
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34
Q

Describe one vital link between the innate immune response and the adaptive immune response? (Clue= APC’s)

A

APC’s engulf, digest and present epitopes of a particular antigen on their surface to B cells and T-cells of the immune system (of the adaptive IS), in this respect they localise the presentation of antigen!

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35
Q

Name three APCs.

A
  1. Tissue macrophages
  2. Monocytes within the blood
  3. Neutrophils
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36
Q

What pH does sebum lower skin to?

A

3.5

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37
Q

What is lysozyme?

A

Lysozyme–hydrolytic enzyme in tears and mucous; cleaves

peptidoglycan in bacterial cell walls

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38
Q

What is interferon?

A

Released by virus-infected cells that bind to nearby cell surfaces in a Paracrine fashion that arouses a general antiviral state.

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39
Q

What are the four main roles of the complement system? Briefly outline each.

A

Opsonisation: enhancing the likelihood of phagocytosis of an antigen
Chemotaxis: attracting macrophages and neutrophils
Cell lysis: rupturing the cell membrane of foreign cells
Agglutination: clustering and binding of pathogens together

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40
Q

What are leukocytes? (? hint: WBC)

A

WHITE BLOOD CELLS

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41
Q

Name the three myriad cell types that are derived from monocytes.

A

Dendritic cells
Macrophages
Mast cells

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42
Q

Name the three granulocyte cell types?

A

Neutrophils
Basophils
Eosinophils

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43
Q

What is included in the lymphoid cell lineage

A

Plasma cells (B cells)
Effector T cells
NK cells

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44
Q

What % of lymphocytes lie within the blood?

A

Less than 1%

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45
Q

Where do the rest lie?

A

Lymph nodes and organs such as the spleen

46
Q

What happens to T lymphocytes upon production in the bone marrow?

A

They leave and travel to the Thymus gland wherein they mature and gain specificity to the many possible antigens they may encounter.
Majority are killed off, especially cells that attack the host.

47
Q

What is the nature and fate of B cells as they leave the bone marrow?

A

They leave with their specific membrane bound Ig already designated to them. These B cells (which haven’t encountered antigens are called naive). Upon encountering an antigen they undergo clonal expansion. An activated B cell can do one of two of the following,

  1. Become a plasma cell and secrete fast amounts of antibody that label the antigen for destruction
  2. Become memory B cells and wait until further exposures to the same antigen
48
Q

What cells express MHC class 1 on their surface?

A

All cells express MHC class 1

49
Q

What is the major histocompatibility complex?

A

A type of protein expressed on the surface of host cells that interact with the receptors of T cells (TCR).

50
Q

What cells express MHC-II?

A

APCs, they also express MHC-I

51
Q

What two types of T cells are there?

A

T-helper and cytotoxic T cells (NK)

52
Q

What T-cells express CD4+?

A

Helper T-cells

53
Q

What T-cells express CD8+?

A

Cytotoxic T cells

54
Q

To what do helper T cells bind?

A

They bind MHC-II of APCs

55
Q

What does CD stand for?

A

Cluster of differentiation

56
Q

What happens on binding of helper T cells (CD4+) onto MHC-II/Ag?

A

Cytokines are released from the helper T cells and act as chemotactic agents to attract more helper T cells, Cytotoxic T cells (CD8+), APCs and B cells.

57
Q

Where are CD receptors found?

A

Predominately T cells

58
Q

What are altered self cells?

A

They are cells that have been infected by a pathogen and consequently display MHC-I/Ag on their surface for recognition with cytotoxic T cells (CD8+)

59
Q

What occurs when cytotoxic T cells bind with the MHC-I/Ag (stabilised by CD8)?

A

The cytotoxic T cell differentiates much like B cells, into either memory T cells or cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes release a PERFORIN which creates pores in the plasma membrane of the self- altered cell, (20nm in diameter), which allows the entry of Granzyme B.

60
Q

What is Granzyme B? (?: a granny called Serine)

A

A serine protease.

61
Q

What happens when Granzyme B enters a self altered cell?

A

Activates Intracellular executioner Caspases (caspa the ghost ??)

62
Q

What are exogenous antigens? (?: Exo means outside)

A

Antigens that have been phagocytosed by APCs, (they’re processed aswell) and displayed on MHC-II. They bind T helper cell TCRs (stabilised by CD4+)

63
Q

What are endogenous antigens? (Hint: within)

A

Antigens displayed by body cells that have been infected by a particular antigen (usually viral or cancer proteins) . They are broken do by lysosomes and displayed on MHC-I and bind to cytotoxic T cells TCRs (stabilised by CD8+)

64
Q

What does Cytotox8 mean?

A

Means the additional CD is CD8+, they belong to cytotoxic T cells

65
Q

each person has a unique MHC. True or false?

A

True

66
Q

Why do peoples have more vigorous immune systems?

A

Because their antigen presenting molecules (MHC) are better than others

67
Q

What happens when helper T cells interact with their complementary B cell?

A

They express cytokines that attract B cells to the site of infection and encourage differentiation and growth.

68
Q

When coated with their specific antibody, what happens to this now harmless antigen ?

A

Delivered to lymph nodes.

69
Q

For every 1 man affected by Graves’ disease how many woman are?

A

8 ????????

70
Q

Describe the 3-fold objective the immune system

A
  1. Destroy the invading antigen via innate or humoral response, e.g fixation or endocytosis by macrophage.
  2. Attract immune cells to site of infection, where they can engulf, process and display the antigen to T-cells
  3. Antigen is presented to naive B cells circulating the lymphatic system, creating effector B cells and memory cells for future efficient responses
71
Q

What is the difference between cytokines and chemokines?

A

Cytokines general term for signalling molecules, e.g. WBCs release Interleukin.
Chemokines are a specific cytokine for the function of cell attraction toward an area of infection such as Interleukin 8.

72
Q

Over what range do Cytokines work?

A

Short range, local.

73
Q

How do cytokines work?

A

Over a chemical gradient

74
Q

How does inflammation at sites of infection occur? For the blood vessels are usually impermeable to most proteins.

A

A series of binding events occur along the blood vessel wall at JUNCTIONs, that leads to ‘leaky’ behaviour I.e. Increases vascular permeability and leukocytes can enter.

75
Q

What occurs to the receptors of antibodies?

A

They undergo AFFINITY MATURATION and are POSITIVELY SELECTED

76
Q

What separates EFFECTOR cells from regular lymphatic cells

A

They possess the physical and chemical ability to kill/destroy antigens

77
Q

What is a mast cell, where is it found and are there any similar Myeloid derived cells?

A

Mast cell is a cell of the innate immune system
Best known for its role in Allergic responses
Contains granules rich in histamine (hence allergic response)
BUT also involved in wound healing

Found in mucosal tissue (e.g the intestine)
Similar in appearance to Basophils accept Basophils are found in the blood

78
Q

What two major roles do Macrophages play in the immune response?

A

Phagocytosis and annihilation of the microorganisms AND stimulation of inflammation

  1. Microorganism binds to phagocytotic receptor, is endocytosed and broken down in the lysophagosome
  2. Inflammation: components of bacteria bind to signalling receptors and induce expression and release of inflammatory cytokines
79
Q

What family do Neutrophils, Basophils, Eosinophils comprise?

A

The polymorphonuclear family

80
Q

What abundance are neutrophils found within the human body? (% of leukocytes)

A

40-75% of all leukocytes found in human body are neutrophils
Most common

81
Q

What is a neutrophil

A

Essentially a type of phagocyte

82
Q

Where are neutrophils found?

A

The bloodstream predominantly

83
Q

Neutrophils are one of the first responders to an infection. True or false

A

True

84
Q

What chemokines do neutrophils follow to arrive at the site of infection

A

Interleukin-8, gamma interferon (INF-gamma) and C3a/C5a

85
Q

What do neutrophils do once they are activated at the site of infection?

A

They release cytokines for further cell attraction and inflammatory events

86
Q

What is needed for neutrophils to engulf microogranisms/particles?

A

Opsonisation of the foreign species. Needs OPSONINS coated on its surface

87
Q

What are OPSONINS?

A

Any molecule attached to the surface of antigens that increase the likelihood of its destruction/phagocytosis.

88
Q

How many types of granules do neutrophils possess? And what is so special about them?

A

3, each with their own unique antimicrobial properties

89
Q

What are the 3 mechanisms in which neutrophils attack antigens?

A

Phagocytosis
Granulate secretion
And Neutrophil Extracellar traps (NETs)

90
Q

What are NETs and what purpose do they serve?

A

Upon activation Extracellular web like structures of DNA are produced
Contain chromatin and serine proteases which trap and kill bacteria

91
Q

What other function of NETs is hypothesised?

A

Prevention of further spread of pathogen, as these web like structures are found to form in bloodstream, physically blocking their movement.
Pro-thrombotic effects have been observed

92
Q

Who discovered NETs?

A

The BRINKMANN! ?

93
Q

What are Eosinophils responsible for in the immune system (?)

A

For combating multicellular PARISITES and fighting infections

94
Q

What other myeloid derived cells are they similar to ?

A

They are similar to Mast cells as they are associated with allergic responses and asthma. They contain histamine. (Just as basophils do)

95
Q

What does the word EOSINOPHIL mean?

A

Acid loving

96
Q

Name three digestive enzymes found in eosinophillic granules?

A

Histamine, RNase and deoxyribonuclease

97
Q

What things are affected by degranulation of eosinophils?

A

Parasites and host cells

98
Q

Where are eosinophils found and where are they not?

A

Found: lower gastrointestinal tract, urogenital tract, spleen and lymph nodes

Not found: the respiratory tract or the SKIN ✋

99
Q

What other potential pathogenic target of eosinophils can be deduced from the presence of RNase and deoxyribonuclease in their granules ?

A

Viral diseases, for they contain genetic material

100
Q

So eosinophils are involved in allergic responses, destruction of parasites and viral infections by release of digestive granules, what other job do they serve? (?: T cells are involved)

A

They are APCs just like dendrites and macrophages

101
Q

Where would you find lymph nodes?

A

Distributed throughout the body, especially the armpit and stomach

102
Q

What connects lymph nodes?

A

Lymphatic vessels

103
Q

What is found in lymph nodes?

A

B cells, T cells and other immune cells such as eosinophils and macrophages

104
Q

What do lymph nodes function as?

A

A drainage/filter system for the body. Detects foreign bodies and cancers and is mediates the bodies combat against them by bringing them in direct contact with immune cells of the body

105
Q

What factors are contained in lymph nodes ?

A

Growth and regulation factors that promote growth and maturation of immune cells

106
Q

What purpose do reticular surfaces provide in lymph nodes?

A

Sites of adhesion for macrophages, dendritic cells and lymphocytes

107
Q

What occurs when lymph nodes are challenged by an antigen?

A

They produce germinal centres in their cortex, hence their swelling

108
Q

What flows through afferent and efferent vessels of lymph nodes?

A

Afferent: lymphocytes
Efferent: lymphocytes plus non cellular components of blood

109
Q

Where are neutrophils stored?

A

In the bone marrow (in high numbers)

110
Q

What happens to neutrophils once they attack the antigen and consequently die?

A

They are engulfed by macrophages ?

111
Q

What is the cell mediated immune response ?

And what is the humoral response?

A

Cell mediated response: the interaction of T helper cells and T cytotoxic cells with presented antigens

Humoral response: B cells + antigens= plasma cells + antibodies + antigens = neutralisation

112
Q

What is histamine?

A

An organic nitrogenous compound involved in inflammation (activates certain GPCRs)
Also function as neurotransmitter and increase capillary permeability

Intergrated Cell Biology (8 decks)

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