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Human Bio ATAR - Mila > Immunity > Flashcards

Immunity Flashcards

1
Q

Bacterial Structural features

A

Cell Wall
No membrane bounding organelles
Rings of DNA

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2
Q

Virus structural features

A

Flagellum
Protein spikes
Protein sheath
Contains RNA

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3
Q

Difference between bacteria and a Virus

A

Virus can infect widespread whereas bacteria is localised

Virus is non-living whereas bacteria is a unicellular living organism

Bacteria can be beneficial whereas viruses cannot be beneficial

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4
Q

Contact transmission of pathogens

A

Indirect contact - touching something an infected person has touched

Direct contact - touching an infected person

EXAMPLE - STIs

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5
Q

Transfer of bodily fluids of pathogens

A

Bodily fluids come into contact with mucous membranes of an uninfected person so the pathogen can enter the body

EXAMPLE - HIV

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6
Q

Transfer of pathogens via droplets

A

Droplets of moisture containing pathogen emitted when sneezing or coughing can be breathed in by another or settle on food

EXAMPLE - Measles

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7
Q

Transmission of pathogens via ingestion

A

Consumption of food or drink contaminated with pathogen allowing it to enter via the digestive tract

EXAMPLE - Salmonella

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8
Q

Transmission of pathogen via airborne transmission

A

When moisture in exhaled droplets evaporates, some bacteria and viruses remain viable which cause infection when inhaled

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9
Q

Transmission of pathogens by vectors

A

Transfer of pathogen via an animal

EXAMPLE - Malaria

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10
Q

Skin as external defence

A

Impervious barrier prevents entry

Secrete sebum containing antibacterial substances

Sweat glands produce lysozyme

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11
Q

Cilia as an external defence

A

Beating motion moves mucous upwards where it can be expelled

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12
Q

Hair as an external defence

A

Traps particles

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13
Q

Mucous as an external defence

A

Traps microogranisms

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14
Q

Acids as an external defence

A

In stomach, kill pathogens which have been ingested

In vagina which reduce growth of microorganisms

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15
Q

Lysozyme as an external defence

A

Enzymes that kill bacteria

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16
Q

Flushing action as an external defence

A

Urine flowing prevents bacterial growth

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17
Q

Cerumen as an external defence

A

Earwax, protects outer ear against infections

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18
Q

Sneezing as a protective reflex

A

Forceful expulsion of air from lungs

Carries foreign particles out nose and mouth

19
Q

Coughing as a protective reflex

A

Forces mucous upwards and out

20
Q

Vomiting as a protective reflex

A

Expels contents of stomach

21
Q

Diarrhoea as a protective reflex

A

Contractions of large intestine muscles allow pathogen to be removed quickly

22
Q

Steps of the inflammatory response as a non-specific defence

A
  1. Damage tissues stimulate mast cells to release histamine and heparin into the tissue fluid
  2. Histamine causes vasodilation of blood vessels to increase blood flow to damaged area, it also causes the increase of permeability of the capillaries which allows fluid to be filtered from the blood, this causes redness and heat
  3. Heparin prevents clotting in the area
  4. Other chemicals attract macrophages and leukocytes to consumed microorganisms and debri via phagocytosis
  5. Pain receptors are stimulated to feel pain
  6. Phagocytes collect all bacteria and debri to form pus as dead cells begin to die
  7. New cells are formed by mitosis and repair of damaged tissue takes place in formation of a scab
23
Q

Fever as a non-specific defence

A
  1. Set point rises
    - WBC release pyrogens, this causes the hypothalamus to change its set point at a higher than normal temperature this causes the body to seem coler than it is, this causes vasoconstriction and shivering to try and warm the body up
  2. Fever break
    Once the pyrogens stop being released by the WBCs, the hypothalamus resets its set points to 36 degrees which causes the body to vasodilate and profuse sweating to cool the body temp
24
Q

Why is high temperatures beneficial for pathogens?

A
  1. Increases production of killer T-cells = speeds up cell-mediated response
  2. Increases metabolic to allows an increase in tissue repair
  3. Creates non-optimum environment for pathogens so it inhibits them
  4. Inhibits bacterial growth
25
Q

How to maintain good hygiene, prevent pathogens from entering the body

A

Washing hands
Covering mouth
Wiping surfaces

26
Q

Steps of the antibody mediates immune response / humoral response

A
  1. Macrophages detect a microorganism with a foreign antigen
  2. They engult it and display the antigen on the surface of its cell membrane
  3. The macrophage then presents the antigen to a b-cell
  4. The antigen then binds to the surface of the B-cell membrane at antigen receptor site, causing the b-cell to become sensitised
  5. The macrophage also presents the antigen to a t-cell
  6. The helper t-cell than matures and is induced to release substances = cytokines
  7. These activate B-cells to enlarge and divide into a group of cells = clones
  8. These clones further develop into plasma cells which secrete the complimentary antibody which is capable of attaching to the antigen active site
  9. These circulate in blood, lymph and extracellular fluid to reach the microorganism of foreign material and inactivate it
27
Q

What is the secondary response of the humoral response

A

B-cells clones which don’t develop into plasma cells become memory cells which allow the immune response to occur more rapidly if the same froegn material enter the body again

28
Q

Why are memory cells beneficial

A
  1. Allows more antibodies to be produced at a faster rate
  2. Antibody concentration remains higher for longer
  3. Symptoms of foreign antigen are minor to none at all
29
Q

How do antibodies inactive the pathogen

A
  1. Binds to surface of viruses to prevent entering cell
  2. Coat bacteria so more easily consumed by phagocytes
  3. Inhibit reactions with other cells which causes cell breakdown
  4. React with soluble substances to make insoluble to be consumed by phagocytes
30
Q

Steps of the cell-mediated immune response

A
  1. Foreign antigen enters the body
    2 Macrophage detects it and present the antigen to a helper t-cell
  2. The helper t-cell binds to the antigen and secretes cytokines which activate and sensitise the T-cell
  3. Sensitised T-cells that don’t become memory cells develop further into specialised T-cells known as helper t-cells, suppressor t-cells or killer t-cells
  4. Intracellular pathogen infection will stimulate the T-cells to become inactivated by non-self antigen
31
Q

Types of immunity

A
  1. Natural, mothers antibodies across the placenta
  2. Artificial, someone else’s antibodies injected
  3. Passive, only lasts as long as the antibodies are in the body
  4. Antibodies can be produced quickly, results in no/slight symptoms
32
Q

Live attenuated vaccine

A

contains live microorganism with reduced virulence

EXAMPLE - Measles

33
Q

Inactivated vaccine

A

Contains dead microorganisms

EXAMPLE - Influenza

34
Q

Toxoid vaccine

A

Inactivated toxins produced by bacteria

EXAMPLE - Tetanus

35
Q

Biosynthetic Vaccine

A

Contain synthetic substances

EXAMPLE - HIB

36
Q

Social Factors for Vaccinations

A

FOR
Following health advice of health professionals
Helps to create herd immunity
Negative side effects are rare

AGAINST
Lack of availability of the vaccine
Perceived health concerns
Parents don't see the importance
Can encourage sexual activity
Ethical concerns
37
Q

Cultural factors for vaccinations

A

FOR
Historically always done in families

AGAINST
Ethical objection to medical interventions with religious beliefs

38
Q

Economic factors for Vaccinations

A

FOR
Immunisation bonus paid to participants
Reduced health care costs for treating the sick
No loss of family tax benefits

AGAINST
Cost of visiting a doctor to abstain
Cost prohibitive for some governments
Interests of commercial enterprise that manufacture the vaccine can affect its use

39
Q

Vaccine Delivery

A

Via a syringe

Sprays, skin patches and ingestion are continuously being tested

40
Q

Types of antibiotics

A
  1. Bacterial antibiotics: Kill bacteria by changing structure of cell wall or membrane
  2. Bacteriostatic: Stop bacteria from reproducing, usually by disrupting protein synthesis
  3. Broad-spectrum: Affects many types of bacteria
  4. Narrow-spectrum: Affects only a particular type of bacteria
41
Q

Two types of antibiotic resistance

A
  1. Multiple drug resistance: Resistance of some strains of bacteria to most of the available antibiotics
  2. Total drug resistance: Resistance of some strains to bacteria to all antibiotics
42
Q

How do antivirals help viruses

A

It inhibits the development of the virus by interfering with reproduction

EXAMPLE - HIV, Herpes

43
Q

Whats the difference between antibiotics and antivirals

A

Antivirals are harder to make because viruses replicate which makes it difficult to find drugs that will treat viral infections

Antivirals are often toxic to the host

Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections whereas antivirals treat viral infections

Human Bio ATAR - Mila (7 decks)

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