Immune System Flashcards
What are enzymes?
Biological catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions within living organisms
Who isolated the enzyme amylase and in what year?
Anselme Payen and Jean-François Persoz in 1833
What significant discovery did Eduard Buchner make in 1897?
Fermentation can occur outside of living yeast cells
What was the significance of Buchner’s discovery?
It established that enzymes are pivotal in metabolic processes
What did James Sumner achieve in 1926?
Successfully crystallized urease, confirming enzymes are proteins
What are the three categories of enzymes based on mineral interactions?
- Metalloenzymes
- Metal-activated enzymes
- Cofactor-dependent microbial enzymes
What is the role of vitamins in microbial enzyme technology?
Facilitate industrial fermentation and biosynthesis
What are coenzymes?
Biologically active forms of vitamins that enhance microbial enzyme catalysis
Name a water-soluble vitamin essential for bacterial metabolism.
B-complex vitamins or Vitamin C
What are the key structural features of Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)?
Contains a thiazole and pyrimidine ring
What is the coenzyme form of Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)?
FAD and FMN
What is the function of NAD⁺ in microbial metabolism?
Electron carrier in microbial fermentation and respiration
What is the coenzyme form of Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)?
Coenzyme A
What type of reactions does Biotin (Vitamin B7) facilitate?
Carboxylation reactions
What is the role of FAD in microbial respiration?
Essential electron carrier in the microbial Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Fill in the blank: Coenzymes serve as _______ in microbial enzymes.
electron carriers, acyl group donors, and carbon transfer agents
What mineral is crucial for DNA replication in bacteria?
Magnesium (Mg²⁺)
Name an example of a metalloenzyme.
Laccase with Cu²⁺ in fungi
What is the primary role of Zinc (Zn²⁺) in microbial enzyme activity?
Structural role and catalytic function
What are the six major classes of enzymes according to the IUBMB?
- Oxidoreductases
- Transferases
- Hydrolases
- Lyases
- Isomerases
- Ligases
What is an example of an oxidoreductase?
Lactate dehydrogenase
What does the systematic name of an enzyme describe?
The substrate and reaction type
What is the EC number for Hexokinase?
EC 2.7.1.1
What is the function of Coenzyme A in microbial metabolism?
Fatty acid metabolism
True or False: Vitamins can function independently in metabolic reactions.
False
What modification converts Riboflavin into its coenzyme form?
Phosphorylation to FMN and FAD
What is the coenzyme form of Vitamin B6?
Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)
What is the role of minerals in microbial enzyme function?
Act as cofactors, stabilizing enzymes and aiding in biocatalysis
What is the function of Iron (Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺) in microbial respiration?
Electron transfer
List two examples of coenzymes derived from vitamins.
- NAD⁺ from Niacin (B3)
- FAD from Riboflavin (B2)
What is the function of Hexokinase (EC 2.7.1.1)?
Transfers phosphate from ATP to glucose
What type of reaction do Hydrolases catalyze?
Bond cleavage using water
What is the specific function of Trypsin (EC 3.4.21.4)?
Hydrolyzes peptide bonds in proteins
What distinguishes Lyases from other enzymes?
Break bonds without water or oxidation
What does Fumarase (EC 4.2.1.2) convert?
Converts fumarate to malate
What is the role of Isomerases?
Rearrange molecules into isomers
What does Triosephosphate isomerase (EC 5.3.1.1) convert?
Converts DHAP to G3P in glycolysis
What is the function of Ligases?
Join molecules using ATP
What does DNA ligase (EC 6.5.1.1) do?
Joins DNA strands
What does the EC Number format consist of?
Four levels: EC x.y.z.w
What does ‘x’ represent in the EC Number format?
Main enzyme class (1-6)
What does ‘y’ represent in the EC Number format?
Subclass (reaction type)
What does ‘z’ represent in the EC Number format?
Sub-subclass (specific group acted upon)
What does ‘w’ represent in the EC Number format?
Serial number for that enzyme
Provide an example of an enzyme with its EC Number.
Lactate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.27)
What is the importance of enzyme nomenclature?
Standardization, classification, biotechnological applications
What does standardization in enzyme nomenclature ensure?
Universal understanding across scientific fields
Why is classification important in enzyme nomenclature?
Helps in identifying enzyme functions and relationships
In what applications is enzyme nomenclature useful?
Medicine, industry, and research
What environment do enzymes predominantly operate in vivo?
Aqueous environment
What characterizes the reactions catalyzed by enzymes?
Exhibit some degree of reversibility
What is modified in microorganisms to direct reactions to desired products?
Genetically modifying the organism
What is a redox process?
Chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons between molecules
What are the two simultaneous processes in a redox reaction?
Oxidation and reduction
Define oxidation in the context of redox processes.
The loss of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion
Define reduction in the context of redox processes.
The gain of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion
What is the core mechanism of a redox process?
Electron transfer
What happens to the oxidant in a redox reaction?
Gains electrons and gets reduced
What happens to the reductant in a redox reaction?
Loses electrons and gets oxidized
In biological systems, what role do redox reactions play?
Cellular respiration, metabolism, and biosynthesis
What are enzymes?
Biological catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions within living organisms
Who isolated the enzyme amylase and in what year?
Anselme Payen and Jean-François Persoz in 1833
What significant discovery did Eduard Buchner make in 1897?
Fermentation can occur outside of living yeast cells
What was the significance of Buchner’s discovery?
It established that enzymes are pivotal in metabolic processes
What did James Sumner achieve in 1926?
Successfully crystallized urease, confirming enzymes are proteins
What are the three categories of enzymes based on mineral interactions?
- Metalloenzymes
- Metal-activated enzymes
- Cofactor-dependent microbial enzymes
What is the role of vitamins in microbial enzyme technology?
Facilitate industrial fermentation and biosynthesis
What are coenzymes?
Biologically active forms of vitamins that enhance microbial enzyme catalysis
Name a water-soluble vitamin essential for bacterial metabolism.
B-complex vitamins or Vitamin C
What are the key structural features of Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)?
Contains a thiazole and pyrimidine ring
What is the coenzyme form of Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)?
FAD and FMN
What is the function of NAD⁺ in microbial metabolism?
Electron carrier in microbial fermentation and respiration
What is the coenzyme form of Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)?
Coenzyme A
What type of reactions does Biotin (Vitamin B7) facilitate?
Carboxylation reactions
What is the role of FAD in microbial respiration?
Essential electron carrier in the microbial Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Fill in the blank: Coenzymes serve as _______ in microbial enzymes.
electron carriers, acyl group donors, and carbon transfer agents
What mineral is crucial for DNA replication in bacteria?
Magnesium (Mg²⁺)
Name an example of a metalloenzyme.
Laccase with Cu²⁺ in fungi
What is the primary role of Zinc (Zn²⁺) in microbial enzyme activity?
Structural role and catalytic function
What are the six major classes of enzymes according to the IUBMB?
- Oxidoreductases
- Transferases
- Hydrolases
- Lyases
- Isomerases
- Ligases
What is an example of an oxidoreductase?
Lactate dehydrogenase
What does the systematic name of an enzyme describe?
The substrate and reaction type
What is the EC number for Hexokinase?
EC 2.7.1.1
What is the function of Coenzyme A in microbial metabolism?
Fatty acid metabolism
True or False: Vitamins can function independently in metabolic reactions.
False
What modification converts Riboflavin into its coenzyme form?
Phosphorylation to FMN and FAD
What is the coenzyme form of Vitamin B6?
Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)
What is the role of minerals in microbial enzyme function?
Act as cofactors, stabilizing enzymes and aiding in biocatalysis
What is the function of Iron (Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺) in microbial respiration?
Electron transfer
List two examples of coenzymes derived from vitamins.
- NAD⁺ from Niacin (B3)
- FAD from Riboflavin (B2)
What is the function of Hexokinase (EC 2.7.1.1)?
Transfers phosphate from ATP to glucose
What type of reaction do Hydrolases catalyze?
Bond cleavage using water
What is the specific function of Trypsin (EC 3.4.21.4)?
Hydrolyzes peptide bonds in proteins
What distinguishes Lyases from other enzymes?
Break bonds without water or oxidation
What does Fumarase (EC 4.2.1.2) convert?
Converts fumarate to malate
What is the role of Isomerases?
Rearrange molecules into isomers
What does Triosephosphate isomerase (EC 5.3.1.1) convert?
Converts DHAP to G3P in glycolysis
What is the function of Ligases?
Join molecules using ATP
What does DNA ligase (EC 6.5.1.1) do?
Joins DNA strands
What does the EC Number format consist of?
Four levels: EC x.y.z.w
What does ‘x’ represent in the EC Number format?
Main enzyme class (1-6)
What does ‘y’ represent in the EC Number format?
Subclass (reaction type)
What does ‘z’ represent in the EC Number format?
Sub-subclass (specific group acted upon)
What does ‘w’ represent in the EC Number format?
Serial number for that enzyme
Provide an example of an enzyme with its EC Number.
Lactate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.27)
What is the importance of enzyme nomenclature?
Standardization, classification, biotechnological applications
What does standardization in enzyme nomenclature ensure?
Universal understanding across scientific fields
Why is classification important in enzyme nomenclature?
Helps in identifying enzyme functions and relationships
In what applications is enzyme nomenclature useful?
Medicine, industry, and research
What environment do enzymes predominantly operate in vivo?
Aqueous environment
What characterizes the reactions catalyzed by enzymes?
Exhibit some degree of reversibility
What is modified in microorganisms to direct reactions to desired products?
Genetically modifying the organism
What is a redox process?
Chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons between molecules
What are the two simultaneous processes in a redox reaction?
Oxidation and reduction
Define oxidation in the context of redox processes.
The loss of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion
Define reduction in the context of redox processes.
The gain of electrons by a molecule, atom, or ion
What is the core mechanism of a redox process?
Electron transfer
What happens to the oxidant in a redox reaction?
Gains electrons and gets reduced
What happens to the reductant in a redox reaction?
Loses electrons and gets oxidized
In biological systems, what role do redox reactions play?
Cellular respiration, metabolism, and biosynthesis
Lecture No te: Microbial Detection Techniques in Forensics
Introduction
Microbial forensics is an evolving field that employs microbiological
molecular
biochemical techniques to detect and analyze microorganisms involved in criminal
investigations
bioterrorism
crucial in identifying sources of contamination
tracking disease outbreaks
forensic linkages. This lecture will provide an in-depth understanding of microbial detection
techniques and their applications in forensic sCience.
- Importance of Microbial Detection in Forensics
Microbial detection techniques help forensic Cxperts:
Identify pathogenic or unique microbial strains ]linked to criminal cases.
Trace sources of biological threats and bioterrorism agents.
Differentiate natural outbreaks from deliberate microbial releases.
Establish microbial signatures associated with specific environments or individuals.
- Culture-Based Techniques
Culture-based methods remain fundamental in microbial detection
involving the growth of
microorganisms on selective and differential media
Agar Plate Culturing: Bacteria and rungi are grown on nutrient-rich media to study
colony morphology and biochemical properties.
Selective and Differential Media: Speciie gTowth media enhance the isolation of
target micro bes (e.g.
MacConkey agar for Gram-negative bacteria).
Enrichment Cultures: Used for loW-cOncentration microbes
allowing preferential
growth before analysis.
Limitations:
Time-consuming (24-72 hours for bacterial growth).
Some microbes are non-culturable under standard laboratory conditions.
- Microscopy-Based Techn iques
Microscopic examination provides direct visualization of microbial cells.
Light Microscopy: Used for Gram staining and morphological characterization of
bacteria.
Fluorescence Microscopy: Uses fluorescent dves to detect specific bacterial species.
Electron Microscopy: Provides high-resolution images of microbial ultrastructure
essential for viral detection.
- Molecular Detection Techniques
) Shot on POWER P55 T
Molecular techniques provide high specificity and sensitivity for microbial identification.
