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Phase 1 > IMMS > Flashcards

IMMS Flashcards

1
Q

What molecules are used for storage in the body?

A

Lipofuscin, lipid, glycogen

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2
Q

What is a desmosome?

A

It is an intercellular junction that provides strong adhesion between cells

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3
Q

Movement across membranes: Explain the process of simple diffusion

A

E.g. gaseous exchange along chemical gradient

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4
Q

Movement across membranes: Explain the process of facilitated diffusion

A

The movement of solutes from a region of their high concentration to a region of their low concentration through protein channels, until a dynamic equilibrium is reached. Voltage gated channels are activated by action potentials

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5
Q

Movement across membranes: Explain the process of active transport

A

the movement of solutes from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration against the concentration gradient. Both transmembrane carrier protein and ATP is required e.g. Na/K ATPase pump - going against chemical and electrical gradients

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6
Q

What is the definition of homeostasis?

A

The maintenance of a constant internal environment

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7
Q

Cell communication methods: autocrine

A

Chemical is released from cell into the extracellular fluid and then acts upon the very cell that secreted it

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8
Q

Cell communication methods: paracrine

A

Chemical messengers involved in the communication between cells, released into extracellular fluid - travel short distances, local communication. E.g Acetylcholine at neuromuscular junction

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9
Q

Cell communication methods: endocrine

A

Secretion into blood. Produce and secrete hormones, communication between cells, travel much longer distance, systemic communication, can affect the whole body.

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10
Q

Cell communication methods: exocrine

A

Secretion into ducts then into organ

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11
Q

Explain the positive feedback loop

A

amplification of signal. E.g. clotting cascade & oxytocin
release during childbirth

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12
Q

Explain the negative feedback loop

A

centre of homeostasis, main way endocrine hormones are controlled.

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13
Q

What is the definition of osmolality?

A

measure of the number of dissolved particles per kg of fluid

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14
Q

How is a glycosidic bond formed?

A

The hydroxyl group of a monosaccharide can react with an OH or an NH group to form a glycosidic bond

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15
Q

Explain the primary structure of a protein

A

Linear sequence of amino acids, held together by covalent bonds.

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16
Q

Explain the secondary structure of a protein

A

Formation of either alpha helix or beta pleated sheets due to hydrogen bonds between amino acids - determined y the local interactions between the side chains and sequence of amino acids.

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17
Q

What is a super-secondary structure

A

Combination of secondary structures

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18
Q

Explain the tertiary structure of a protein

A

Overall 3D conformation of a protein, bonding involved is H electrostatic, H bonds and covalent bonds. Folding of the secondary structure into a globular structure due to bonds such as ionic bonds, disulphide bridges and Van Der Waal forces. Confirmation can change with temperature or pH

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19
Q

Explain the quaternary structure of a protein

A

3D structure of protein composed of multiple subunits. Same non-covalent interactions are tertiary structures. 2 or more tertiary structures joined together to form a protein e.g. haemoglobin.

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20
Q

What are Van Der Waals forces?

A

Weak attractive/repulsive force between all atoms due to fluctuating electrical charge. Note: only important when 2 macromolecular surfaces fit closely in shape.

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21
Q

What are hydrogen bonds?

A

Interaction between polar groups

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22
Q

What is semi-conservative replication

A

Each resulting DNA double helix retains one strand of the original DNA

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23
Q

What is the dominant negative effect

A

A mutation where the gene product adversely affects the normal, wild-type gene product within the same cell.

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24
Q

Whats the ATP/ADP cycle

A

ATP = ADP +Pi

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25
Q

Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur?

A

It occurs at the inner mitochondria membrane

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26
Q

What is the total ATP made from one molecule of glucose

A

34 ATP?

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27
Q

Give some examples of fatty acids

A

Fats, oils, cholesterol and steroids

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28
Q

What is the main energy supply?

A

Carbohydrates?

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29
Q

How are ketones used for energy at low fat state

A

Ketosis is a natural metabolic state. It involves the body producing ketone bodies out of fat, and using them for energy instead of carbohydrates

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30
Q

What is the definition of an acid

A

Molecules capable of releasing a hydrogen ion; solutions having an H+ concentration greater than that of pure water (that is pH is less than 7)

31
Q

What is the definition of a base?

A

Any molecule that can combine with H+; (nucleotide) molecular ring of carbon and nitrogen that, with a phosphate group and a sugar, constitutes a nucleotide.

32
Q

Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur?

A

Inner mitocondria membrane

33
Q

Explain the electron transport chain

A

Two electrons from hydrogen atoms are initially transferred either form NADH+, H+ or FADH2 to one of the protein in ETC. These electrons are then successively transferred to other compounds in the cain redox reactions, until the electrons are finally transferred to molecular oxygen, which then combines with hydrogen ions (protons) to form water.

34
Q

How do we protect against oxygen toxicity

A

Antioxidant enzymes, antioxidant vitamins and cellular compartmentalisation

35
Q

Name 3 antioxidant enzymes and given a brief explanation of what each one does.

A

Superoxide dismutase - converts superoxide to hydrogen peroxide + oxygen
Catalase - catalyses conversion of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen and protects white blood cells against own respiratory burst
Glutathione peroxidase - catalyses the reduction of hydrogen peroxide to water and a disulphide (GSSG)

36
Q

What are antioxidant vitamins?

A

Vitamin E - found in liver, free radical scavenger, protects against lipid peroxidation and terminates free radical propagation in membranes.
Vitamin C - e.g. ascorbic acid - reacts with superoxide and hydroxyl radical and regenerates reduced vitamin E.

37
Q

What is cellular compartmentalisation?

A

Respiratory burst taking place in phagosomes so harmful chemicals don’t get out and damage healthy tissue.

38
Q

What is a polymorphism?

A

Frequent hereditary variations at a locus. Doesn’t cause problems (that’s mutations). Polymorphisms can be you more/less efficient or make you more/less susceptible to disease.

39
Q

What is imprinting? (Non-mendelian)

A

For some genes only 1 out of the 2 alleles is active, the other is inactive. For particular genes it is always the paternal or the maternal allele.

40
Q

What are the different classifications of genetic disease?

A

Chromosomal, mendelian (autosomal dominant/recessive or X-linked), Non traditional (Mitochondrial)

41
Q

What is a lysosome?

A

Contains digestive enzymes) - waste disposal system and is the site of breakdown for most molecules.

42
Q

What is a peroxisome?

A

small, membrane-bound organelles containing enzymes which oxidase long-chain fatty acids.

43
Q

What is beta-oxidation

A

Fatty acids are broken down into two-carbon fragments which the cell can use as a source for generating ATP.

44
Q

What is the cytoskeleton?

A

Filamentous proteins which brace the internal structure of the cell - helps maintain their shape and internal organisation.

45
Q

What is lipofuscin?

A

Membrane-bound orange-brown pigment, peroxidations of lipids (degradation of lipids) in older cells, common in heart and liver, found in older people - sign of wear and tear.

46
Q

What is a lipid?

A

Non-membrane-bound vacuoles, appears as empty space in histology since dissolving in processing, stored in adipocytes and liver.

47
Q

What is glycogen?

A

CHO polymer in cytoplasm, normally only seen on electron microscopy, may accumulate in some cells and in some diseases.

48
Q

Where does glycolysis take place?

A

In the cytosol

49
Q

What the glycolysis equation?

A

Glucose + 2ADP + 2NAD+ = 2pyruvate +4ATP +2NADH +2H+ +2H2O

50
Q

What is the simplified glycolysis equation?

A

Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ = 2pyruvate + 2ATP +2NADH +2H+ +2H2O

51
Q

What are the 5 enzymes involved in glycolysis?

A

Kinase, isomerase, aldolase, dehydrogenase, endolase

52
Q

What is the action of kinase?

A

enzyme that adds/removes phosphate group to things from an ATP

53
Q

What is the action of isomerase?

A

Enzyme that rearranges structure of substrate without changing the molecular formula (similar to mutase)

54
Q

What is the action of aldolase?

A

Enzyme that creates or breaks carbon-carbon bonds

55
Q

What is the action of dehyrogenase?

A

Enzyme that moves hydride ion (H-) to an electron acceptor e.g. (NAD+ or FAD+)

56
Q

What is the action of endolase?

A

Enzyme that produces a carbon=carbon double bond by removing a hydroxyl group (OH)

57
Q

In anaerobic reactions what is pyruvate turned into?

A

Lactate

Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi = 2 lactate + 2ATP +2H2O

58
Q

What is the first stage of glycolysis?

A

Glucose is converted into glucose-6- phosphate by hexokinase. ATP is converted into ADP

59
Q

What is the second stage of glycolysis?

A

Glucose-6-phosphate is converted into fructose-6-phosphate by phosphohexose isomerase.

60
Q

What is the third stage of glycolysis?

A

Fructose-6-phosphate is converted into fructose-1,6-bisphosphate by phosphofructokinase-1. ATP is converted into ADP.

61
Q

Why is glycolysis inhibited by acidosis?

A

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) is pH dependent and is inhibited by acidic conditions

62
Q

Where does the Krebs cycle take place?

A

In the mitochondrial matrix

63
Q

What is the equation for oxidative phosphorylation?

A

Pyruvate (glycolysis) = acetyl CoA (2C) +CO2 by the action of coenzyme A. Also NAD+ is converted into NADH + H+

64
Q

What are the steps of the Krebs cycle?

A 
Remember the mnemonic: 'Can I Keep Selling Socks For Money, Officer?
C = citrate
I = isocitrate
K= alpha ketoglutarate
S = succinylcholine coenzyme A
S = succinate
F = fumerate
M = malate
O = oxaloacetate
65
Q

Name a start codon

A

AUG

66
Q

Name 3 stop codons

A

UGA, UAG, UAA

67
Q

What is the equation for the Krebs cycle?

A

Acetyl CoA + 3NAD+ + FAD + GDP + ADP +Pi + 2H2O = 2CO2 + CoA + 3NADH + 3H+ + FADH2 + GTP + ATP

68
Q

What is the Carnitine shuttle?

A

Coenzyme A is re-added and the carnitine ripped off to regenerate Acyl CoA. The carnitine can then diffuse through the outer mitochondrial membrane to be used again to convert Acyl CoA to Acyl Carnitine

69
Q

What is the Henderson Hasselbalch Equation?

A

pH = pKa + log([HCO3-]/[CO2])

70
Q

Which enzyme catalyses this part of the aerobic glycolysis pathway? 1,3-bisphosphate to 3-phophoglycerate.

A

Phosphoglycerate kinase

71
Q

Which enzyme is not involved in either aerobic or anaerobic glycolysis?

A

ATPase

72
Q

Where does the energy needed to phosphorylate ADP come from?

A

The transport of electrons across a mitochondrial membrane.

73
Q

A genetic disease is present within multiple generations of a family, with each generation, the disease presents earlier and is more severe. What is this an example of?

A

Anticipation

Phase 1 (2 decks)

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