iii, iv, vi Flashcards
cognitive system
a conscious, rational, and controlled system of thinking
experiential system
an unconscious, intuitive, and automatic system of thinking
dual process theories
theories that are used to explain a wide range of phenomena by positing two ways of processing information
heuristics
mental short cuts, or rules of thumb, that are used for making judgements and decisions
implicit attitudes
automatic associations based on previous learning through experiential system
explicit attitudes
attitudes people are consciously aware of through the cognitive system
somatic marker hypothesis
idea that changes in the body, experienced as emotion, guide decision making
categories
mental containers in which people place things that are similar to each other
schema
a mental structure store in memory that is based on prior knowledge
scripts
schemas about an event that specify the typical sequence of actions that take place
impressions
schemas people have about other individuals
self concept
schema people have about themselves
accessibility
ease with which people can bring an idea into consciousness and use it in thinking
salience
aspect of schema that is active in one’s mind and consciously or not, colors, perceptions, and behavior
priming
process by which exposure to a stimulus in the environment increases salience of a schema
associative networks
models for how pieces of information are linked together and stored in memory
semantic associations
mental linked between two concepts that are similar in meaning or that are parts of the same category
experiential associations
mental linked between two concepts that are experienced close together in time or space
chronically accessible schemas
schemas that are easily brought to mind because they are personally important and used frequently
assimilation effects
occur when priming a schema changes a person’s thinking in the direction of the primed idea
contrast effects
occur when priming a schema changes a person’s thinking in the opposite direction of the primed idea
self fulfilling prophecy
phenomenon where initially false expectations cause fulfillment of those expectations
metaphor
cognitive tool that allows people to understand an abstract concept in terms of dissimilar, concrete concept
short term memory
information and input that is currently activated
long term memory
information from past experience that may or may not be activated
misinformation effect
process by which cues that are given after an event can plant false information into memory
availability heuristic
tendency to assume that information that comes easily to mind is more frequent or common
ease of retrieval effect
process where people judge how frequently an event occurs on the basis of how easily they can retrieve examples of that event
casual attribution
explanation that people use for what caused a particular event of behavior
locus of causality
attribution of behavior to either an aspect of the actor or to some aspect of the situation
correspondent inference
tendency to attribute to the actor an attitude, desire, or trait that corresponds to the action
fundamental attribution error
tendency to attribute behavior to internal or dispositional qualities of the actor and consequently underestimate the causal role of situational factors
actor observer effect
tendency to make internal attributions for the behavior of others and external attributions for our own behavior
covariation principle
tendency to see a causal relationship between an event and an outcome when they happen at the same time
discounting principle
tendency to reduce the importance of any potential cause of another’s behavior to the extent that other potential causes exist
magical thinking
tendency to believe that simply having thoughts about an event before it occurs can influence that event
fusiform face area
region of temporal lobe that helps us recognize the people we know
prosopagnosia
inability to recognize familiar faces
theory of mind
set of ideas about other peoples’ thoughts, desires, feelings, and intentions based on what we know about them and the situation they are in
mirror neurons
certain neurons are activated both when one performs an action oneself and when one simply observes another person performing that action
transference
process whereby we activate schemas of a person we know and use the schemas to form an impression of someone new
false consensus
general tendency to assume other people share our own attitudes, opinions, and preferences
halo effect
tendency of social percievers’ assessments of an individual on a given trait to be biased by the percievers’ more general impression of the individual
representativeness heuristic
tendency to overestimate the likelihood that a target is part of a larger category if it has features that seem representative of that category
primacy effect
idea that what we learn early colors how we judge subsequent information
upward counterfactual
imagined alternative where the outcome is better than what actually happened
downward counterfacual
imagined worse alternative outcomes to something that actually happened
cognitive dissonance theory
idea that people have such distaste for perceiving inconsistencies in their beliefs, attitudes, and behavior that they will bias their own attitudes and beliefs to try and deny inconsistencies
free choice paradigm
lab situation in which people make a choices between two alternatives, and after they do, attraction to the alternatives is assessed
induced compliance paradigm
lab situation in which participants are induced to engage in a behavior that runs counter to their true attitudes
induced hypocrisy paradigm
lab situation in which participants are asked to advocate an opinion they already believe in, but then are reminded about a time when their actions ran counter to that opinion, therefore arousing dissonance
effort justification
phenomenon where people reduce dissonance by convincing themselves that what they suffered for is actually quite valuable
minimal deterrence
use of minimal level of external justification necessary to deter unwanted behavior
self concept clarity
clearly defined, internally consistent, and temporally stable self concept
self verification
seeking out other people and social situations that support the way one views oneself in order to sustain a consistent and clear self concept
self complexity
extent to which an individual’s self concept consists of many different aspects
self narrative
coherent life story that connects one’s past, present, and possible future
possible selves
images of what the self might become in the future
self esteem
level of positive feeling one has about oneself
self handicapping
placing obstacles in the way of one’s own success to protect self esteem from a possible future failure
projection
assigning to others those traits that people fear they possess themselves
theory of symbolic self completion
idea that when people perceive that a self defining aspect is threatened, they feel incomplete, and then try to compensate by acquiring and displaying symbols that support their desired self definition
compensation
after a blow to self esteem in one domain, people often shore up their overall sense of self worth by bolstering how they think of themselves in an unrelated domain
self affirmation theory
idea that people respond less defensively to threats to one aspect of themselves if they think about another valued aspect of themselves
basking in reflected glory
associating oneself with successful others to help bolster one’s own self esteem
self evaluation maintenance model
idea that people adjust their perceived similarity to successful others to minimize threatening comparisons and maximize self esteem supporting identifications
anxiety buffer
idea that self esteem allows people to face threats with their anxiety minimized
sociometer model
idea that a basic function of the self esteem is to indicate to the individual how much he or she is accepted by other people
self compassion
being kind to ourselves when we suffer, fail, or feel inadequate, recognizing that imperfection is part of the human condition, and accepting rather than denying negative feelings about ourselves
dramaturgical perspective
using theater as a metaphor, the idea that people perform accordingly to a script
self monitoring
an individual’s difference in people’s desire and ability to adjust their self presentations for different audiences
spotlight effect
belief that others are more focused on us than they actually are
illusion of transparency
the tendency to overestimate another’s ability to know our internal thoughts and feelings
self determination theory
idea that people function best when they feel that their actions stem from their own desires rather than from external forces
locus of control
extent to which a person believes that either internal or external factors determine life outcomes
overjustification effect
tendency for salient rewards or threats to lead people to attribute the reason, or justification, for engaging in an activity to an external factor, which thereby undermines their intrinsic motivation for and enjoyment of the activity
flow
feeling of being completely absorbed in an activity that is appropriately challenging to one’s skills
mindfulness
state of being and acting fully in the current moment
