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II Flashcards

Science

1
Q

What is evolution and biodiversity?

A

genetic variation resulting in environmentally adaptive traits has resulted in a diverse number and types of species

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2
Q

What is community ecology?

A

how populations of species grow, disperse, and interact with other populations

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3
Q

What are ecosystems?

A

the integration of living and nonliving system components in specific geographic areas

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4
Q

What are biomes?

A

variation in global patterns of temperature, sunlight, and rainfall create geographic regions distinguished by different dominant forms of plants and animals

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5
Q

What are global energy and matter cycles?

A

global biogeochemical cycles on which all ecosystems depend on

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6
Q

What is the most common measure of biological diversity?

A

the number of different species in a certain area

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7
Q

What is Earth’s large number of species a result of?

A

a large amount of genetic diversity in species

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8
Q

What is genetic diversity?

A

the variety of genes

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9
Q

What are genes?

A

the chemical building blocks that provide the blueprint for how every individual organism grows

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10
Q

About how many different genes do all humans have combined? (referring to types of genes)

A

30,000

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11
Q

What is the exception to the fact that no 2 people will have the exact same combination of genes?

A

identical twins

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12
Q

What are species distinguished by at the most basic level?

A

how different their genes are

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13
Q

What is the ultimate source of biodiversity on Earth?

A

genetic diversity

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14
Q

The genetic differences between individuals in the same species can lead to what?

A

physical variety, such as in eye color, lead arrangement, or beak size

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15
Q

What are changes in the blueprint of a species over time?

A

evolution

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16
Q

Why do bears today have little resemblance to their ultimate ancestor?

A

evolution

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17
Q

What do you need to understand to learn how genetic diversity leads to species diversity?

A

the basic principles of genetic diversity

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18
Q

Where do all organisms inherit their genes from?

A

their parent(s)

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19
Q

Genes contain most/all of the instructions for which types of traits?

A

relatively simple traits

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20
Q

What do more complex traits require to produce?

A

the interaction of more than one gene

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21
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

the trait that is the result of a genotype

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22
Q

What is a genotype?

A

the genetic code for an organism

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23
Q

What is an organism’s genotype comprised of?

A

all of an organism’s genes

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24
Q

What are genes chemically made up of?

A

DNA

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25
Q

Genes are arranged within an organism’s cells on structures called ________________.

A

chromosomes

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26
Q

Genes have alternate forms that have different instructions for what the phenotype will be, the alternate forms are called _________.

A

alleles

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27
Q

If a gene in a population has 2 alleles, how many potential combinations are there for the genotype?

A

3

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28
Q

If an individual has 2 copies of a gene (B and b) what are the potential gene combinations?

A

BB, Bb, and bb

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29
Q

What is the dominant allele for Bb?

A

B is the dominant allele

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30
Q

What is the dominant allele for BB?

A

both are dominant

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31
Q

What is the dominant allele for bb?

A

there is no dominant allele

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32
Q

Is it possible to measure all the different alleles for a particular trait that occurs in a population?

A

No, it is impossible

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33
Q

What is Canis familliaris?

A

the domestic dog

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34
Q

Why do people breed certain breeds of the domestic dog?

A

to produce desired traits

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35
Q

What causes variations in size, shape, coat texture, color, and more in the domestic dog?

A

different combinations of alleles in different dog breeds

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36
Q

What is the only way a new allele can be produced?

A

through a mutation

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37
Q

What is a genetic mutation?

A

an error when genetic material is copied, and can permanently alter the genotype of an organism and its descendants

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38
Q

When do mutations occur?

A

randomly and spontaneously

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39
Q

When are mutations more likely to occur?

A

when an organism is exposed to anthropogenic chemicals, ex: those in tobacco smoke or radiation

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40
Q

Where does the mutation have to occur to be passed down to an organism’s offspring?

A

its sex cells

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41
Q

If there are many different alleles for a particular trait, will there be a small or large amount of genetic variation in the population?

A

a large amount

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42
Q

Do large or small populations usually have more genetic variation?

A

large populations usually have more

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43
Q

Why do larger populations have more genetic variation?

A

because there is a higher likelihood that the population has more alleles due to its size

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44
Q

In simple cases, what is a phenotype?

A

an expression of the genotype

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45
Q

In complex cases, what is a phenotype?

A

the result of the interaction between the genotype and its environment

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46
Q

What is the formula for phenotype? (complex)

A

Phenotype = Genotype + Environment

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47
Q

What 2 types of processes does species diversity result from?

A

adaptive and nonadaptive processes

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48
Q

How do most new species arise?

A

when the genotypes and phenotypes of two or more populations diverge through processes at the population level

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49
Q

How will a frog with longer legs compare with a frog with normal legs?

A

the frog with longer legs will be able to jump farther, allowing it to catch food more easily, thus increasing its fitness

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50
Q

What is fitness?

A

a measure of the relative viability and fertility of an organism

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51
Q

What is viability?

A

the ability to survive

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52
Q

What is fertility?

A

reproductive success

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53
Q

Harmful alleles tend to what?

A

die out with the individuals that carry them

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54
Q

Sickle–cell disease is an example of what?

A

harmful alleles

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55
Q

What is sickle–cell disease?

A

a disease that reduces the oxygen capacity of blood

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56
Q

What effects does sickle–cell disease have on humans?

A

it results in many severe mental and physical impairments, usually death

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57
Q

Sickle–cell disease occurs in people of __________ descent.

A

African

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58
Q

What is a benefit of sickle–cell disease?

A

it provides resistance to malaria

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59
Q

In Africa, there are many deadly diseases, but the most deadly disease is __________.

A

malaria

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60
Q

How many copies of the allele are necessary to produce sickle–cell disease?

A

2

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61
Q

What will happen if an organism has one allele for sickle–cell disease?

A

it will not develop the disease but will have some natural resistance against malaria

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62
Q

Who synthesized the concept of evolution through natural selection into a unifying theory?

A

Charles Darwin

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63
Q

When did Darwin make his observations about natural selection?

A

when he was aboard the HMS Beagle

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64
Q

What was the name of Darwin’s natural selection theory when he published it?

A

“The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”

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65
Q

When did Darwin publish his natural selection theory?

A

in 1859

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66
Q

What are the key ideas of Darwin’s theory of natural selection?

A
  1. Organisms produce more offspring than needed to replace parents
  2. Individuals will express a range of phenotypes
  3. Some phenotypes will allow an organism to be more fit than others in their environment
  4. The more fit individuals will have a better chance of reproducing, they will be selected and well–established
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67
Q

What does Darwin’s theory mainly explain?

A

why do individuals with certain traits survive and reproduce

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68
Q

What is an adaptation?

A

a trait that helps an organism become more fit for a particular environment

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69
Q

Will a species with more genetic variation adapt faster or slower than one with little genetic variation?

A

it will be able to adapt faster

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70
Q

What are the fastest ways to adapt to an environment?

A

changes in behavioral or physiological responses

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71
Q

Panting of a dog or a human sweating are adaptations that allow the organism to do what?

A

cool off

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72
Q

Plants dropping their leaves at the beginning of a dry season allows them to do what?

A

conserve water

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73
Q

When do short–term responses fail?

A

when an environment changes too much

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74
Q

As environments undergo major changes, what will happen to the species?

A

they will either die out or adapt through natural selection

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75
Q

Thick, fleshy leaves with thick, waxy surfaces allow a plant to do what?

A

conserve more water

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76
Q

The ability of a species to adapt to environmental changes depends on what?

A

how much and how fast that change occurs

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77
Q

Much of the current environmental change caused by humans is ____________ and _____________.

A

dramatic and sudden

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78
Q

What occurs when organisms from one population migrate to and mate with another population?

A

gene flow

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79
Q

In which species do high rates of gene flow occur?

A

species with much dispersal of individuals

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80
Q

Most populations are relatively ____________.

A

isolated

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81
Q

Genetic isolation in most species is an issue in what?

A

the maintenance of biodiversity

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82
Q

What type of adaptive process is genetic drift?

A

a nonadaptive process

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83
Q

What is genetic drift?

A

random changes in genotypes among small populations

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84
Q

The bottleneck effect is a type of __________ ________.

A

genetic drift

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85
Q

What is the bottleneck effect?

A

when a population is drastically decreased

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86
Q

What are the causes of the bottleneck effect?

A

hunting, habitat loss, a natural disaster, or changes in the environment

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87
Q

Increased disease and low fertility are problems linked with what?

A

low genetic variation

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88
Q

Why have cheetah populations decreased so much?

A

because of hunting and habitat loss

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89
Q

The cheetah population is so small, all cheetahs are basically what?

A

identical twins

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90
Q

Cheetahs tend to have _____ fertility and _____ rates of disease.

A

low, high

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91
Q

What percent of male cheetahs have abnormal sperm cells?

A

70%

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92
Q

The only reliable studies have been conducted with which cheetahs?

A

zoo cheetahs

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93
Q

Do we know if cheetahs in the wild have reduced fitness?

A

No, because there haven’t been any reliable studies on them

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94
Q

How long can a significant change in a species genotype take?

A

hundreds to thousands of years

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95
Q

Smaller scale evolutionary changes can occur over a much ___________ time scale.

A

shorter

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96
Q

How many factors are important influences on the pace of evolution by natural selection?

A

3

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97
Q

What is the first factor that influences the pace of evolution by natural selection?

A

the rate of environmental change to which a species must adapt

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98
Q

What is the second factor that influences the pace of evolution by natural selection?

A

the genetic variation of a population, more genetic variation usually results in less time but the accumulation of mutations takes a lot longer

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99
Q

What is the third factor that influences the pace of evolution by natural selection?

A

adaptive traits can spread faster in small populations than in larger ones

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100
Q

Small populations are likely to undergo rapid evolution by which processes?

A

nonadaptive processes, such as genetic drift and bottlenecks

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101
Q

Do we know the actual number of species on Earth?

A

No

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102
Q

What does the total number of species in the world today equal?

A

the species that evolved over time minus the species that no longer exist

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103
Q

What happens when the environment changes so that a population is no longer adapted to it?

A

its growth rate becomes negative and will eventually reach zero

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104
Q

How can a population save itself when the environment changes?

A

it can either adapt or migrate to an environment it can succeed in

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105
Q

Is there always a favorable environment for a population?

A

No

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106
Q

Organisms that can’t adapt to environmental change will eventually go __________.

A

extinct

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107
Q

What is most of what we know about the evolution of life, based on?

A

fossils

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108
Q

What are fossils?

A

the remains of dead plants and animals that have been preserved in rock

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109
Q

What parts of an organism are usually fossilized?

A

typically the hard parts of an organism, and sometimes softer organic material

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110
Q

How can soft organic material get fossilized?

A

it is buried and protected by mud and sediment, over time it will harden

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111
Q

Where are the oldest fossils found?

A

at the deepest layers of Earth and the fossil record

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112
Q

What is the basis of the geologic time scale?

A

the fossil record

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113
Q

What does the geologic time scale divide time into?

A

various intervals from the formation of the Earth to the present

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114
Q

What characterizes the intervals in the geologic time scale?

A

distinctive events

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115
Q

When did bacteria appear in the fossil record?

A

3.5 billion years ago

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116
Q

When did multicellular and shelled organisms appear in the fossil record?

A

540 million years ago

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117
Q

From when can we trace identifiable species?

A

1–10 million years of the fossil record

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118
Q

When were mammalian species found in the fossil record?

A

1 million years ago

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119
Q

When were clams and marine species found in the fossil record?

A

10 million years ago

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120
Q

Do organisms found in the fossil records usually exist today?

A

No

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121
Q

What is the example given in the book for a species that was found in the fossil record and still exists today?

A

the ginkgo tree

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122
Q

Where is the ginkgo tree found?

A

in China and some parts of the US (in the US it is commonly used as an ornamental tree)

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123
Q

When did the ginkgo tree appear in the fossil record?

A

roughly 60 million years ago

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124
Q

How did the Dodo become extinct?

A

through overexploitation by European settlers and invasive species competing with them for food

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125
Q

Why were the Dodo hunted so much?

A

because they were large, flightless birds, basically an easy source of meat

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126
Q

What are Dodo birds?

A

large, flightless birds

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127
Q

When did European settlers start overhunting the Dodo bird?

A

during the 17th century or 1600s

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128
Q

Where was the Dodo bird hunted?

A

the Indian Ocean Island of Mauritius

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129
Q

What is habitat fragmentation?

A

the splitting up of habitats into smaller pieces

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130
Q

The construction of roads housing development, or shopping/industrial centers is an example of what?

A

habitat fragmentation caused by humans

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131
Q

Habitat fragmentation reduces the area of what?

A

contiguous habitat

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132
Q

What are the effects of reducing the area of contiguous habitat?

A

it creates barriers to the normal movement of a species

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133
Q

The mountain lion, wolf, and tiger all require what type of land?

A

large tracts of relatively uninhabited undisturbed land

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134
Q

Fragmentation creates more habitat that is along a(n) ________.

A

edge

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135
Q

What does increased edge habitat cause?

A

a change in the species composition of the habitat overall

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136
Q

Since there is more edge created, the inner portions of something like a forest are now closer to the outside, causing what?

A

causing organisms to penetrate into the forest more easily, resulting in them eating organisms that would have been safer without the edge

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137
Q

How does habitat fragmentation affect the size of the population?

A

it can divide the population into several smaller populations

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138
Q

How will the gene flow of the smaller populations caused by habitat fragmentation be affected?

A

it will be greatly reduced as the population will become genetically isolated and may lose genetic variation through genetic drift

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139
Q

What are exotic species?

A

organisms that are introduced by people to an area they are not native to

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140
Q

While moving things from place to place, what have humans brought to new continents and areas?

A

diseases and new species

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141
Q

The zebra mussel is an example of what?

A

an exotic species

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142
Q

Where is the zebra mussel native?

A

the Caspian Sea in Asia

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143
Q

Where did the zebra mussel first enter the US?

A

through the Great Lakes

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144
Q

How was the zebra mussel brought to the US?

A

through a ship

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145
Q

When was the zebra mussel brought to the US?

A

the 1980s

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146
Q

Does the zebra mussel have any known predators in North America?

A

no

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147
Q

How has the zebra mussel population grown in North America?

A

exponentially

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148
Q

Where in North America has the zebra mussel population grown?

A

the Eastern US and Canada

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149
Q

What has the zebra mussel done to its environment?

A

depleted food supplies, clogged water intake valves, and caused many other problems

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150
Q

When an exotic species enters a new area, what might it encounter?

A

an unexploited resource they can rapidly utilize

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151
Q

What happens to the populations of exotic species due to the fact that they have no natural predators in this new environment?

A

they grow rapidly and there is usually nothing to stop it

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152
Q

What do we need to know to fully explore the patterns of biodiversity?

A

how species distribution and abundance is limited by its environmental conditions

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153
Q

What is ecology?

A

the study of the relationship between organisms and their environment

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154
Q

What do relationships include in this context?

A

the adaptation of an individual’s physiology to environmental extremes, the killing and eating of prey, and the flow of carbon through an environment

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155
Q

To study such a diversity of natural phenomena, ecologists have divided the science into what?

A

a hierarchy from individuals to large–scale ecological systems

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156
Q

Different processes have what kind of effects on biodiversity?

A

different effects

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157
Q

What 3 things are critical to an organism’s survival in an environment?

A

liveable abiotic environmental conditions. the amount of available resources, and a habitat for it to live in

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158
Q

What are conditions?

A

the chemical or physical factors in the environment that influence survival and growth

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159
Q

What do conditions determine?

A

which species and communities flourish in some habitats compared to others

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160
Q

For terrestrial systems, what determines the absence or presence of certain species?

A

the availability of light from solar radiation, temperature of air and soil, soil type, and amount of nutrients

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161
Q

Conditions for terrestrial systems vary depending on what?

A

location, or latitude and elevation

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162
Q

In aquatic systems, what determines the absence or presence of certain species?

A

temperature, available light from solar radiation, gradients in the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water, salinity, acidity

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163
Q

Conditions for aquatic systems vary depending on what?

A

depth of the water, the location in a stream, latitude, elevation, and more

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164
Q

What are the main locations in a stream?

A

upstream, midstream, and downstream

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165
Q

Under optimal environmental conditions, how will the species live?

A

they will thrive, or survive, grow, and reproduce

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166
Q

What happens as conditions become less optimal?

A

they will grow and survive, but might not reproduce

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167
Q

What happens when conditions become so bad they can barely live?

A

they will barely survive and will not reproduce but might grow

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168
Q

What is the range at which a species can exist?

A

its range of tolerance

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169
Q

Food, water, light, and oxygen are all examples of __________.

A

resources

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170
Q

What are resources?

A

aspects of the environment used to stay alive

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171
Q

The amount of available resources is important to which levels of ecology?

A

all levels of ecology

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172
Q

Can a habitat with a large amount of resources support a lot of species or just a few?

A

they can support a lot of species

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173
Q

What is the direct correlation between the amount of resources and the number of species?

A

suprisingly, there is very little correlation between the two

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174
Q

Where does the explanation of the little correlation between the amount of resources and the number of species lie?

A

the varied abilities of individual organisms to use resources under various abiotic environmental conditions

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175
Q

If a habitat has a large amount of resources but very extreme abiotic environmental conditions, will there be a lot of organisms that live there?

A

No, only the ones that are adapted to withstand these conditions can survive there

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176
Q

The large salt marshes that extend along the eastern coast of the US from Georgia to Cape Cod are an example of what?

A

areas with a large amount of resources but very harsh environmental conditions

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177
Q

Salt marshes act like a ____________ _______ for large amounts of nutrients caught from the flow of rivers.

A

storage tank

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178
Q

Do salt marshes produce high or low levels of biomass?

A

high levels

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179
Q

Is the vegetation within salt marshes diverse?

A

No

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180
Q

Is the vegetation within salt marshes abundant?

A

Yes

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181
Q

A few grass species make up what percent of salt marsh biomass?

A

over 95%

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182
Q

Why do only certain grasses dominate salt marshes?

A

because of only those species can process the nutrient–rich resources under the extreme environmental conditions

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183
Q

What causes the extreme environmental conditions in salt marshes?

A

fluctuation in salt concentrations throughout the year, low oxygen levels in the soil, and large amounts of toxins

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184
Q

How do salt concentrations increase in salt marshes?

A

through rapid evaporation

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185
Q

How do salt concentrations decrease in salt marshes?

A

through rapid flooding and heavy rains

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186
Q

What causes the low oxygen levels in the soil of salt marshes?

A

a high level of microbial decomposition that takes place, which uses lots of oxygen

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187
Q

What is another side effect of high microbial decomposition in salt marshes? (other than low oxygen)

A

it also produces large amounts of toxins

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188
Q

What adaptations allow salt marsh grasses to survive in salt marshes?

A

special tissues that allow them to concentrate and excrete water, air chambers in their roots, and the way they allocate their energy

189
Q

How do air chambers in the roots of salt marsh grasses allow them to adapt to a salt marsh?

A

it allows them to create their own oxygen–rich microhabitats in the soil surrounding them

190
Q

Populations in different species interact with each other in which 3 ways?

A

interspecific competition, predation, and mutualism

191
Q

What is interspecific competition?

A

different species competing for a limiting resources in the same location

192
Q

What is a limiting resource?

A

a resource that the population needs but is low and decreasing

193
Q

What happens to the population that depends on the limiting resource when it decreases?

A

it goes down as well

194
Q

If the resource limits the growth and reproduction of a resource, can it be shared?

A

No

195
Q

If a resource cannot be shared, what happens to the species that can’t receive it?

A

it will go extinct

196
Q

What is competitive exclusion?

A

a principle that states when a limiting resource can’t be shared, one species will succeed and the other will go extinct

197
Q

Does competition for resources occur with plants?

A

yes

198
Q

What is Avena fatua?

A

the wild oat

199
Q

Where is the wild oat most abundant?

A

the Great Plains of North America

200
Q

What type of plants does the wild oat compete with for resources?

A

agricultural crops, such as wheat, barley, and flax

201
Q

Why do wild oats outcompete crop plants?

A

because their seeds ripen earlier, allowing them to start growing before the other species

202
Q

What allows the crop plants to survive against the wild oats?

A

human intervention

203
Q

Niche is closely related to which principle?

A

the competitive exclusion principle

204
Q

What word is niche confused with?

A

habitat

205
Q

What is niche?

A

The role of an organism within a community, what it does and how it lives

206
Q

What phrase do many ecologists rephrase the competitive exclusion principle as?

A

two populations that fill the same niche, such as by feeding on the same limited resource, cannot coexist

207
Q

What is the exception to the competitive exclusion principle?

A

if they 2 populations partition the resources so that their niches don’t overlap completely, they can coexist

208
Q

What is predation?

A

the use of one species as a resource by another

209
Q

This definition of predation allows us to include which other species interactions?

A

herbivory and parasitism

210
Q

What is herbivory?

A

where animals eat plants, seeds, or fruits

211
Q

What is parasitism?

A

where animals, plants, fungi, or bacteria feed on another organism or use it as a habitat

212
Q

Does parasitism cause death?

A

Most of the time it doesn’t, it just causes injury

213
Q

What establishes how energy flows in an ecosystem?

A

predation

214
Q

How do predators limit the population of prey?

A

by eating them and changing their behavior

215
Q

How do most predator–prey cycles in laboratory systems end?

A

by the prey population going extinct, and the predator population going extinct soon after

216
Q

What is the third major type of population interaction?

A

mutualism

217
Q

Do mutualistic interactions increase or decrease the survival probability or reproduction of the species?

A

increase

218
Q

Mutualism isn’t species helping each other cooperatively, but __________ ____________.

A

reciprocal exploitation

219
Q

What happens with mutualism when a population’s self–benefit becomes too low?

A

they will most likely stop the interaction as it will no longer be of value

220
Q

What is the most common type of mutualism?

A

the interaction between plants and animals

221
Q

What is the most important type of mutualistic interaction?

A

the interaction between plants and their pollinators

222
Q

Is the mutualistic interaction weak or strong when pollinators pollinate many different plants and many plant species are pollinated by different pollinators?

A

it is weak

223
Q

What do many plant species depend on pollinators for?

A

their reproduction and survival

224
Q

Mutualistic interaction is strong with what type of mutualism?

A

symbiotic mutualism

225
Q

What mutualism type occurs when one animal species pollinates only one plant species, and vice versa?

A

symbiotic mutualism, or strong mutualistic interaction

226
Q

What is symbiotic mutualism most likely a result of?

A

resource partitioning in the evolutionary past

227
Q

Where do most of the important ecological processes occur?

A

at a level higher than the population level, the ecological community

228
Q

What is a community?

A

any assemblage of populations in a particular area or habitat

229
Q

What is a food web?

A

a summary of the species that make up a community, and how they are linked by energy flow

230
Q

How do food webs compare to food chains?

A

food webs are more complex

231
Q

What are usually the producers in an aquatic food web?

A

algae and phytoplankton

232
Q

Is phytoplankton single–celled or multicellular?

A

single–celled (unicellular)

233
Q

Are zooplankton unicellular or multicellular?

A

unicellular

234
Q

Are algae unicellular or multicellular?

A

multicellular most of the time

235
Q

In most aquatic systems, what usually consumes phytoplankton?

A

zooplankton and other carnivorous, microscopic animals

236
Q

In most aquatic systems, what usually consumes algae?

A

herbivorous fish

237
Q

In most aquatic systems, what usually consumes zooplankton?

A

carnivorous fish

238
Q

In most aquatic systems, what usually consumes insects?

A

carnivorous fish

239
Q

In most aquatic systems, what usually consumes herbivorous fish?

A

carnivorous fish

240
Q

In most aquatic systems, what usually consumes carnivorous fish?

A

the secondary consumers, including tarpons and several bird species

241
Q

Tarpons are usually the __________ fish species in an aquatic system.

A

largest

242
Q

What are the levels in a food chain/web called?

A

trophic levels

243
Q

The word “trophic” comes from which Greek word?

A

“trophe”

244
Q

Trophe is Greek for _______________.

A

nourishment

245
Q

What is the lowest trophic level?

A

the primary producers

246
Q

Plants and algae are at which trophic level?

A

the lowest trophic level, the primary producers

247
Q

Do primary producers rely on other organisms for energy?

A

No

248
Q

How do primary producers receive their energy?

A

through the food they make through photosynthesis

249
Q

What does photosynthesis require?

A

CO2 (carbon dioxide), sunlight and water

250
Q

Do consumers rely on other organisms for food?

A

Yes

251
Q

All the organisms with a higher trophic level than the primary producers are ______________.

A

consumers

252
Q

Grasshoppers, caterpillars, and termites are usually examples of which trophic level?

A

primary consumers

253
Q

Which trophic level do primary consumers feed directly on?

A

primary producers

254
Q

Robins and frogs are usually examples of organisms in which trophic level?

A

secondary consumers

255
Q

What trophic level do secondary consumers feed on?

A

primary consumers

256
Q

What is the trophic level after secondary consumer?

A

tertiary consumers

257
Q

Tertiary consumers feed on organisms from which trophic level?

A

secondary consumers

258
Q

What is the trophic level after tertiary consumers?

A

quaternary consumers

259
Q

Quaternary consumers feed on organisms from which trophic level?

A

tertiary consumers

260
Q

What is used to show the energy transfer between trophic levels?

A

ecological pyramids

261
Q

What percent of energy is transferred from the Sun to the primary producer?

A

1%

262
Q

What percent of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next?

A

10%

263
Q

Why does only 10% of energy get passed on from one trophic level to the next?

A

because the rest is lost as heat

264
Q

Why is the biomass for trophic levels get lower as you go up the ecological pyramid?

A

because of the lack of energy that is transferred

265
Q

As you go up the ecological pyramid what decreases?

A

amount of available energy and biomass

266
Q

Are keystone species the most abundant species in a food web?

A

No

267
Q

What is a keystone species?

A

a species that plays a vital role in the community that is more important than its relative abundance would suggest because of its position in the food web

268
Q

Why was the keystone species concept developed?

A

to explain the effect of removing a relatively rare species from the food web

269
Q

What are the 3 types of keystone species?

A

predators, ecosystem engineers, and mutualists

270
Q

How are predators a keystone species?

A

through their controlling of their prey

271
Q

What population do sea otters keep in check?

A

the sea urchin population

272
Q

What would happen if the sea otter wasn’t in a community?

A

the sea urchins would overpopulate the sea floor and would consume kelp forests, which provide shelter and food for marine organisms

273
Q

How are ecosystem engineers a keystone species?

A

they create and maintain habitats for other species

274
Q

How is the North American beaver an ecosystem engineer?

A

they transform streams into ponds when they build their dams, creating a habitat for pond plants and animals

275
Q

How are mutualists keystone species?

A

they interact with other species for each other’s benefit, kind of like mutualism

276
Q

Mycorrhizal fungi are an example of which type of keystone species?

A

mutualists

277
Q

The mycorrhizal fungi on and in tree roots help trees do what?

A

extract nutrients from the soil and help them grow

278
Q

What are the 3 most important aspects of an ecosystem?

A
  1. its boundary
  2. its biotic component
  3. its abiotic component
279
Q

What is an ecosystem boundary?

A

Where an ecosystem starts and ends

280
Q

What is the biotic component of an ecosystem?

A

the living things in an ecosystem

281
Q

What is the abiotic component of an ecosystem?

A

the physical and chemical parts that are nonliving, including temperature, water, salinity, soil structure, and nutrients

282
Q

What is salinity?

A

the dissolved salt content of water

283
Q

The ecosystem is which level in the hierarchy of biodiversity?

A

the first level

284
Q

An ecosystem is not just the components within it and the boundary, what else is it?

A

the processes occurring within it

285
Q

What is usually the boundary in most aquatic ecosystems, such as lakes, ponds, and streams?

A

the boundary between the land and water

286
Q

In most cases, determining the boundary of an ecosystem is ____________.

A

difficult

287
Q

How do environmental scientists estimate the boundary of terrestrial ecosystems?

A

by the range of the populations that make up the biological community or by ecological processes

288
Q

National parks and reserves are examples of ecosystem boundaries not set by scientific criteria but by what?

A

administrative criteria

289
Q

Knowing the boundary of an ecosystem makes it easier to what?

A

identify the biotic and abiotic components that make up a system

290
Q

What influences how energy flows in an ecosystem?

A

the types of species within it

291
Q

How do energy pyramids from one ecosystem compare to others?

A

they stay relatively constant

292
Q

How do biomass pyramids from one ecosystem compare to others?

A

they vary from ecosystem to ecosystem

293
Q

What does the variation of biomass pyramids depend on?

A

the characteristics of the populations making up the trophic levels and the physical and chemical structure of the ecosystem itself

294
Q

All ecosystem–level processes are subject to what?

A

change

295
Q

What is a disturbance?

A

a change in an ecosystem, where physical, chemical, and some biological agents cause rapid injury or death of organisms, leading to damage or collapse of the biotic component

296
Q

Hurricanes, ice storms, and natural forest fires are examples of which type of disturbance?

A

natural disturbances

297
Q

Clearcutting of forests, agriculture, and air pollution are examples of which type of disturbance?

A

anthropogenic disturbances

298
Q

What are natural disturbances?

A

disturbances that occur naturally and have no human involvement

299
Q

What are anthropogenic disturbances?

A

disturbances caused by human activities

300
Q

What is the slow invasion of a lake by an introduced species called?

A

a perturbation

301
Q

What is a perturbation?

A

a broader version of a disturbance, it refers to any kind of change to the equilibrium in an ecosystem

302
Q

What is an equilibrium in an ecosystem?

A

The balance in an ecosystem

303
Q

The gradual increase in Earth’s temperature by 1 degree Celsius is an example of a(n) _____________.

A

perturbation

304
Q

The rapid increase in Earth’s temperature by 2 degrees Celsius is an example of a(n) _____________.

A

disturbance, specifically an anthropogenic disturbance

305
Q

What is resilience in an ecosystem?

A

the rate at which an ecosystem returns to its original state after a disturbance

306
Q

How fast would a highly resilient ecosystem return to its original state?

A

very fast

307
Q

How fast would a less resilient ecosystem return to its original state?

A

slowly

308
Q

How fast would a highly resilient ecosystem recover from a drought that eliminated half the species?

A

the species would return the following year

309
Q

How fast would a less resilient ecosystem recover from a drought that eliminated half the species?

A

it would take many years, maybe not ever

310
Q

What are biomes?

A

regions with differing vegetation and wildlife

311
Q

How many major terrestrial biomes are there?

A

10

312
Q

What biome is the Amazon in?

A

the tropical rainforest

313
Q

What is the warmest and wettest biome?

A

the tropical rainforest

314
Q

In the tropical rainforest biome, is ecosystem productivity high or low?

A

high

315
Q

How is diversity in the tropical rainforest biome?

A

plant and animal diversity is very high

316
Q

Where is much of the energy and nutrients found in the tropical rainforest biome?

A

the vegetation

317
Q

In the tropical rainforest biome, are soils rich or poor in mineral nutrients?

A

extremely poor

318
Q

Is the tropical dry forest seasonal or year–round?

A

seasonal

319
Q

What type of tree is common in the tropical dry forest biome?

A

deciduous trees

320
Q

What do deciduous trees do with their leaves and flowers during the dry season?

A

they drop them

321
Q

How do productivity and diversity in the tropical dry forest biome compare with the tropical rainforest biome?

A

plant and animal diversity and productivity are much lower in the tropical dry forest biome

322
Q

The US Pacific Northwest is part of which biome?

A

the temperate rainforest biome

323
Q

What tree is common in the temperate rainforest biome?

A

tall coniferous trees

324
Q

How are winters in the temperate rainforest biome?

A

mild

325
Q

How is rain in the temperate rainforest biome?

A

rain is frequent and heavy

326
Q

How often does fog occur in the temperate rainforest biome?

A

very frequently

327
Q

How tall are most trees in the temperate rainforest biome?

A

60–70 meters high

328
Q

What factors in the temperate rainforest biome create optimal conditions for tall trees?

A

mild winters, heavy rain, and frequent fog

329
Q

How does productivity in the temperate rainforest biome compare with the tropical rainforest biome?

A

productivity is about half of the tropical rainforest biome

330
Q

Soils in the temperate rainforest biome tend to be rich in what?

A

organic matter

331
Q

Where is the temperate broadleaf forest biome found?

A

the eastern US, southern Canada, Europe, and eastern Asia

332
Q

What is the primary tree type in the temperate broadleaf forest biome?

A

deciduous trees

333
Q

How are rainfall levels in the temperate broadleaf forest biome?

A

they are moderate

334
Q

How is seasonal temperature variation in the temperate broadleaf forest biome?

A

there is a high seasonal temperature variation

335
Q

How does the temperate broadleaf forest biome productivity compare to temperate forests?

A

they are similar

336
Q

What causes the rich soil in the temperate broadleaf forest biome?

A

when plants and trees shed their leaves, the leaf litter decomposes into rich soil

337
Q

How does the diversity in the temperate broadleaf forest biome compare to the tropics?

A

plant and animal diversity are much lower than in the tropics

338
Q

What is the dominant plant species in the boreal coniferous forest biome?

A

conifers

339
Q

What are the most common types of conifers in the boreal coniferous forest biome?

A

spruces and firs

340
Q

How tall do the conifers usually get in the boreal coniferous forest biome?

A

10–20 meters high

341
Q

What types of mammal species are common in the boreal coniferous forest biome?

A

large mammal species, such as moose, bears, wolves, and the Siberian tiger

342
Q

How does productivity in the boreal coniferous forest biome compare to the tropical rainforest biome?

A

productivity is 1/3 of tropical rainforests

343
Q

Is plant diversity high or low in the boreal coniferous forest biome?

A

plant diversity is low

344
Q

In the boreal coniferous forest biome, yearly weather variation results in what?

A

dramatic variation in seed production

345
Q

What does dramatic variation in seed production result in?

A

dramatic fluctuation in bird and other animal populations

346
Q

What causes the poor soils and low leaf litter decomposition in the boreal coniferous forest biome?

A

low temperatures and chemicals in foliage

347
Q

When do temperate grasslands occur?

A

when precipitation reaches a point so low that there is not enough water to support dense forests and the vegetation shifts to grasslands

348
Q

What are grasslands called in the US?

A

prairies

349
Q

What are grasslands called in Central Asia?

A

steppes

350
Q

How does productivity in the temperature grassland biome compare to tropical rainforests?

A

productivity is about 1/3

351
Q

What causes the accumulation of organic matter, resulting in the temperature grassland biome?

A

decomposition of dead vegetation is limited by low precipitation rates

352
Q

What does the accumulation of organic matter in the temperature grassland biome result in?

A

rich agricultural land

353
Q

Where is the savanna most common?

A

in dry tropical regions of Africa

354
Q

How is the tropical scrub forest different from the savanna?

A

they occur at different times of the year and the tropical scrub forest does not have the same biomass level as the savanna

355
Q

What is the rainfall range for the tropical scrub forest and savanna biome?

A

10–150 cm/year

356
Q

About how much rainfall do the driest 3–4 months of the year in the tropical scrub forest and savanna biome get?

A

less than 5 cm/month

357
Q

What vegetation is most common in the tropical scrub forest and savanna biome?

A

scrub vegetation

358
Q

Why is scrub vegetation small and stunted?

A

because of the limited nutrients and short growing season

359
Q

What do migrating herds of herbivores follow in the tropical scrub forest and savanna biome?

A

the rain and move across the biome

360
Q

What is a wildebeest classified as? (carnivore, herbivore, or omnivore)

A

they are herbivores

361
Q

What is responsible for generating and maintaining the savanna biome?

A

fires and grazing

362
Q

How do productivity and diversity in the tropical scrub forest and savanna biome compare with tropical rainforests?

A

they are both significantly less than a tropical rainforest

363
Q

Where is the Mediterranean biome found?

A

in countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea and California

364
Q

What is the Mediterranean biome known as in California?

A

chaparral

365
Q

When does the Mediterranean biome receive most of its rainfall?

A

during the winter

366
Q

Is the Mediterranean biome dry or wet?

A

it is dry and receives most of its rain in the winter

367
Q

What is vegetation mostly comprised of in the Mediterranean biome?

A

dense, woody shrubs and small trees

368
Q

What qualities do the leaves have in the Mediterranean biome?

A

they tend to be small, leathery, and waxy to help them retain water

369
Q

What adaptation has most vegetation in the Mediterranean biome evolved to help combat the frequent fires?

A

fire–resistant bark

370
Q

Jackrabbits, kangaroo rats, chipmunks, mule deer, and many species of lizards are all commonly found in which biome?

A

the Mediterranean biome

371
Q

What animal types mainly make up the Mediterranean biome?

A

several bird species, small mammals, mule deer, and several species of lizards

372
Q

What is a desert?

A

Any area that receives less than 25 cm of precipitation per year

373
Q

What biome are Mongolia and Montana considered to be?

A

the desert biome, though they are cold deserts

374
Q

Where is the largest desert found?

A

Antarctica

375
Q

What soil types does the desert biome usually have?

A

sandy or rocky soil

376
Q

What vegetation is common in the desert biome?

A

sparsely spaced shrubs and grasses are common

377
Q

Productivity in the desert biome is what percent of productivity in tropical rainforests?

A

0% to 5%

378
Q

Many species in the desert biome have developed adaptations to combat what?

A

the lack of water

379
Q

Where is the tundra biome?

A

the region beyond the tree line

380
Q

What is the tree line?

A

the upper limit of tree growth at high latitude or elevation

381
Q

What vegetation is common in the tundra biome?

A

grasses, grass–like sedges, lichens, and dwarf trees

382
Q

Does the soil in the tundra biome melt completely?

A

No, it stays frozen year–round

383
Q

What is the soil in the tundra biome called?

A

permafrost

384
Q

How much does the soil in the tundra biome thaw during the summer?

A

1/2–1 meter

385
Q

Productivity in the tundra biome is what percent of productivity in tropical rainforests?

A

5%–10%

386
Q

What is the most common mammal species in the tundra biome?

A

rodents, such as lemmings

387
Q

Rodent populations in the tundra biome fluctuate depending on what?

A

the amount of resources available

388
Q

Bird populations in the tundra biome may be abundant in the summer, but what do they do during the winter?

A

migrate south

389
Q

Why aren’t aquatic regions divided into biomes?

A

because they lack a large variety of plants used to divide terrestrial biomes

390
Q

What are the 2 major types of aquatic systems?

A

freshwater and marine

391
Q

Are saltwater concentrations in freshwater systems high or low?

A

salt concentrations are low

392
Q

What 2 groups freshwater systems be divided into?

A

flowing rivers and standing waters

393
Q

Rivers and streams are examples of which type of freshwater system?

A

flowing rivers

394
Q

Ponds and lakes are examples of which type of freshwater system?

A

standing waters

395
Q

What are plants and animals that live near the bottom of aquatic systems known as?

A

the benthic community

396
Q

What other type of community do lakes and ponds have?

A

an open–water community

397
Q

What organism dominates open–water communities?

A

phytoplankton (single–celled algae)

398
Q

What are lake and pond ecosystems influenced by?

A

thermoclines

399
Q

What are thermoclines?

A

abrupt changes in the temperature of the water with depth that prevents the mixing of layers of water

400
Q

What percent of Earth is covered by ocean?

A

roughly 71%

401
Q

The ocean is larger than which biomes?

A

all the biomes combined

402
Q

At which depth is there not enough light for photosynthesis in oceans?

A

100–200 meters

403
Q

How do most deep–water organisms get their food?

A

they either wait for it to descend to them or migrate toward the surface

404
Q

The lack of nutrients in the water in marine ecosystems is what?

A

a major limiting factor, leading to low species diversity and abundance near the surface

405
Q

In marine ecosystems, where does peak species diversity usually occur?

A

at depths of around 2,000–3,000 meters

406
Q

Where are most of the world’s fisheries found? (in which waters?)

A

in waters near the surface and mixed with nutrients

407
Q

Nutrient–rich water in fisheries allows for what?

A

high levels of productivity and vast species abundance and diversity

408
Q

Are wetlands terrestrial or aquatic?

A

they are transitional areas between both

409
Q

Salt marshes, bogs, swamps, and intertidal areas are examples of what?

A

wetlands

410
Q

What are the 3 major types of wetlands?

A

marine (the intertidal region), estuarine, and freshwater

411
Q

Freshwater wetlands make up what percent of all wetlands in the US?

A

91%

412
Q

What are estuarine wetlands?

A

where salt and fresh water mix at the mouths of rivers

413
Q

Bogs, marshes, swamps, and peatlands are examples of which type of wetland?

A

freshwater wetlands

414
Q

How are freshwater wetlands different than open waters?

A

freshwater wetlands have water at or near the soil surface for most of the year

415
Q

Are salt marshes highly or less productive?

A

highly productive as they are important nesting and feeding sites for many animals and birds

416
Q

Elements are constantly _________ within the biosphere?

A

cycled

417
Q

What happens between the biosphere, soils, and water?

A

animals and plants grow, die, and decompose

418
Q

What are the cycles that occur between biosphere, soils, and water known as?

A

biogeochemical cycles

419
Q

Biogeochemical cycles have been altered by what?

A

human activities that release excess amount of an element into the atmosphere, soil, or water

420
Q

What is the biosphere?

A

the sum of all the ecosystems on Earth

421
Q

Changes in biogeochemical cycles have effects on what?

A

ecosystems, landscapes, and the global system

422
Q

For example, the release of nitrogen and phosphorous from fertilizers can result in what?

A

the over–fertilization of natural ecosystems

423
Q

What is the main agent responsible for dissolving and transporting necessary chemical elements?

A

water

424
Q

What do we need to know before we can understand how individual elements cycle?

A

the framework of the water cycle

425
Q

What is the driver of biogeochemical cycling on Earth?

A

the water cycle

426
Q

Water in the atmosphere falls on Earth as what?

A

precipitation, usually rain or snow

427
Q

How does water return to the atmosphere after being taken up by plant roots?

A

through transpiration

428
Q

What is transpiration?

A

the loss of water from the stomates in leaves during photosynthesis

429
Q

What are stomates in leaves?

A

the openings in the leaves

430
Q

What is the combination of evaporation and transpiration called?

A

evapotranspiration

431
Q

Where does water eventually end up when it penetrates the soil?

A

the groundwater system

432
Q

What is the groundwater system?

A

the water that fills the species in rocks and sediments below the soil

433
Q

What is runoff?

A

rainfall draining from the land into water bodies or sinking into the soil

434
Q

Where do all streams and groundwater eventually reach?

A

the ocean

435
Q

The ocean is the ultimate ____________ of water on Earth.

A

reservoir

436
Q

What is the main energy source for the water cycle?

A

solar energy

437
Q

Why is solar energy the main energy source for the water cycle?

A

because evaporation from the oceans is crucial to the water cycle, and the energy that causes this is energy from the Sun or solar energy

438
Q

How many processes run the carbon cycle?

A

4

439
Q

What are the processes that run the carbon cycle?

A

photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and combustion

440
Q

How is photosynthesis one of the processes that run the carbon cycle?

A

when plants go through photosynthesis, they remove carbon dioxide and incorporate it into plant material, such as leaves, roots, and shoots

441
Q

What is carbon fixation?

A

plants incorporating carbon into plant material

442
Q

When is plant carbon returned to the atmosphere?

A

when plants respire at night

443
Q

When organisms die, the carbon that was part of their biomass decomposes, resulting in what?

A

carbon and its other elements continuing the cycle

444
Q

What happens to a small fraction of organic matter in the biosphere that gets buried in sediment before it can decompose?

A

it can be fossilized and may eventually turn into coal, oil, and natural gas

445
Q

The compounds coal, oil, and natural gas are collectively referred to as fossil fuels due to what?

A

the fact that they are fossils and they contain carbon, which can be burned as CO2

446
Q

What does combustion, such as forest fires or the burning of fossil fuels, do involving the carbon cycle?

A

they release carbon back into the environment

447
Q

Where is the greatest amount of carbon on Earth tied up in?

A

carbonated rock, like limestone and organic matter, in sedimentary rocks

448
Q

Does the abiotic pool of carbon stored in carbonate rocks cycle quickly?

A

No, they do not cycle very quickly

449
Q

What type of rock is shale?

A

sedimentary rock

450
Q

Oceans hold a large amount of _________. (answer is an element)

A

carbon

451
Q

Is the carbon annual net gain in oceans large or small?

A

the net gain is very little

452
Q

The chemistry of oceans is changing, they are becoming more acidic due to what?

A

higher levels of CO2 in the atmosphere

453
Q

What is the most important path in the carbon cycle?

A

the movement of carbon between the atmospheric and biospheric pools because it cycles rapidly

454
Q

Without human disturbance, is the carbon exchange between land plants and soils in equilibrium with the atmosphere or not?

A

Yes, there is no net flux of carbon between the pools

455
Q

Without human activity, what state is the global carbon cycle in?

A

steady state

456
Q

What is the largest and most significant human alteration of the carbon cycle?

A

the burning of fossil fuels

457
Q

What is slash–and–burn agriculture?

A

when people cut down trees and vegetation for agriculture and space and the vegetation is then burned

458
Q

In addition to destroying a large amount of biodiversity, what else does the destruction of forests add to the atmosphere?

A

significant amounts of carbon

459
Q

What is nitrate susceptible to?

A

leaching

460
Q

What is leaching in the context of elements?

A

where an element is washed out of the soil by moving water

461
Q

If a site is disturbed, perhaps by human activities, what may happen to the nitrate in the soil?

A

it may leach substantially and can have a significant impact on rivers and streams

462
Q

A high accumulation of nitrate in wet soils can lead to what?

A

denitrification

463
Q

What is denitrification?

A

the natural conversion of nitrate into gas nitrous oxide or N2O

464
Q

What is N2O?

A

nitrous oxide

465
Q

What type of gas is N2O?

A

N2O is a greenhouse gas

466
Q

Which element is often the limiting element in terrestrial systems?

A

nitrogen

467
Q

What is the nitrogen cycle important in?

A

the regulation of net primary productivity and plant growth

468
Q

The nitrogen cycle is a complex cycle with significant effects on which 2 things?

A

pollution and productivity

469
Q

What is N2O commonly referred to as?

A

laughing gas

sciksks0rr (3 decks)

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