I.D.s Flashcards
Act of Toleration
Established by Lord Baltimore who wanted toleration for his own worshippers, The act of Toleration permitted freedom of worship and toleration to all Christians in the state of Maryland. This act was passed in 1649 by the local representative assembly and was backed up by the Catholic faith that was faced with disaster if the act was not supported since they were a minority in the state of Maryland. (34)
Bacon’s Rebellion
Lead by a 29 year old planter known as Nathaniel Bacon, it was a rebellion of 1000 Virginians losing control in 1676. These men were frontiersmen who were forced into the back country of Virginia in search of arable land. These men resented the policies made by Virginia’s governor William Berkeley that were more of the friendlier nature because of the fact that the governor had monopolized the fur trade that Indians were being very successful at and it was making the state money. So when the natives attacked frontiersmen, they weren’t defended by Berkeley due to his policy towards the natives, leading to chaos. (68)
John Calvin
John Calvin took the readings and ideas of Martin Luther and elaborated on those ideas that would later affect the thought of Americans in later years. It was New England Puritans that supported the idea of Calvinism. He preached the idea that God was the all-powerful and good and that humans were weak because of their submission to sin. Calvinism was another form of supporting god but doubts about eternal fate always troubled the Calvinists because John Calvin believed he knew who would go to heaven and who would go to hell. (43-44)
Columbian Exchange
The Exchange and mixing of goods between the New World (Americas) and the Old World (Europe). This included crops, livestock, people, as well as disease. This is called the Columbian Exchange because it was Columbus bringing new things from the old world such as horses, cows, sugarcane etc. as well as bringing back the new world commodities such as tobacco, potatoes, beans, and tomatoes that would help the population of Europe, with this exchange brought disease from the old world such as smallpox that would later devastate the native population in the later years of conquest. All these things were brought over because of the fact that he had to go to and from the New land and Europe and he still believes that he had found India even though he had discovered a continent. (15)
Conquistadors
Spanish explorers or conquers such as Pizzaro, Cortes, etc. They set sail by ship to explore new land in the Americas in hope of gold and silver as well as exploring to gain fame for finding land. Another reason was through religion to find converts from the Americas. Conquistadors were often funded by their home country Spain to go out and explore the world for the 3 reasons listed which are fortune, fame, and religion. (16)
Hernan Cortes
Cortes was without a doubt responsible for the conquering of Mexico. In 1519 he sailed from Cuba with 16 horses and several hundred men, it is thus the start of his voyage where he first was able to pick up two interpreters for the native language, one being a castaway and the other being an Indian slave known as Malinche that would be later baptized and named Dona Marina. With this information, he was able to understand the language of the Aztecs. He then continues his voyage to Mexico where he finds the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan which amazed the Spanish conquistadors with its 300,000 inhabitants. It was a city surrounded by fresh water and greenery. The conquistadors were welcomed and treated well but their greed would soon exhaust that welcome, it was later in June 30 of 1520 that they attacked the Spanish with full force. A year later on August 13, Cortes led a siege that crushed the city, the introduction of disease would later decimate the population and drastically reduce the inhabitants. (17, 20-21)
Encomienda
It is a form of indentured servitude but for Indians, however it is a way for the Spanish government to give Indians to certain colonists for work in return for having the Indians be converted to Christianity and becoming a citizen. However to was taking advantage of the Indians because it was another form of slavery for them even though they were promised to be converted. It is even said by missionary Bartolome de Las Casas that it was “a moral pestilence invented by Satan” because of how it was the unfair treatment and taking advantage of Indians. It was one of the many techniques to subdue to Indian population to Spanish control and eventually take over the land where they called home. (17)
The Great Migration
It is known as the Great Migration because 70,000 English fled England in the 1630’s. It was a well-equipped expedition in 1630 that would have 11 ships carrying immigrants to start a colony that would be larger than other previous ones, however due to turmoil in England, Puritans left in hopes of religious freedom. Out of the 70,000, only 20,000 left for New England in Massachusetts while the rest headed to the West Indies. The great Migration is known as a net-in migration to the Americas which would lead to larger colonies. (46)
Halfway Covenant
This is a form of Church membership, it was a modification of the agreement between the church and its members in terms of baptism. It was devotion but not as strong to allow more freedom. It stressed and dramatized the difficulty of maintaining religious devotion. It would weaken the distinction between the Elect and others. When members of the church admitted to baptism, they didn’t have to do it for a full communion. It was a way for colonists to be less devoted but still be a part of the church. (79)
Headright System
A system that encouraged the importing of servants. Whoever paid for a servant would receive 50 acres of land in which landowners took advantage of both the deal and the servants, they would get land and work out of it which is why they got the most out of the system. The would soon become some of the wealthiest people in the country since they were investing in servants and that their actual money was in the servants themselves. It was a way to get more money out of something that cost money in the first place, however it would be unfair to the indentured servants because they had to pay off that trip to the New World. (67)
House of Burgesses
An assembly of settlers established by the London Company in 1619. It was a miniature parliament in America functioning as a source of government from England, sort of like a US embassy but it is run by Britain. However James 1 did not trust the representatives there and he believe that it was a “seminary of sedition” Even though it was successful in Virginia, the Virginia Company became bankrupt and was no longer sent aid by James 1 making the state loyal and under his control. (33)
Anne Hutchinson
A woman that challenged Puritan orthodoxy and was brought on trial in 1638. She believed that living a holy life would not lead to salvation and that in order to be saved, one must not obey either God or man in terms of laws. During trial, she confused the people she was up against and they believed she was not in support of god. That was proven wrong when she admitted that her beliefs were from a direct revelation from God. Due to this belief, she was banned from the Puritan Bay Colony so that her beliefs wouldn’t pollute the rest of the population there. (47)
Indentured Servants
Indentured servants were migrants to the New World in search of a new start but they often came as servants to pay for the trip there. In this case of the Chesapeake Bay, indentured servants fled the Old world in search of new opportunities in the New world but most of them would never make it because of the hardships that was brought on them such as coming into the land with literally nothing. Indentured servitude was pretty close to slavery because of how hard the work was even though they were getting paid with the lowest amount possible. If they did manage to survive, they would be rewarded with the commodities for living such as a few barrels of corn, clothes, and land but it would be minimal. (50, 67)
Joint-Stock Company
Was a form a funding for a small business, enabling a considerable number of investors which were called adventurers. Joint stock companies provided financial assistance for explorers as well, it was them that financed the colonization of land. The Virginia Company is one example that was used to help aid travelers to the new world in return for profit made from there but it gave pressure to the colonists because the company threatened to leave them stranded there. It was another way to make money because any merchandise from the new world would be liquidated for more money. (28)
King Philip’s War
Was the result of a forged alliance between King Philip and the Indians. The war itself started in 1675 and lasted a year. 52 puritan towns were attacked and 12 of them were destroyed. The objective of the war was to slow the westward march of English settlements in New England. This was successful for a few decades but the war inflicted defeat on the Indians who were already reduced in numbers and because of the fact that King Philip was captured, beheaded, and put on a stake (52).
Martin Luther
A German friar that denounced the authority of priests and popes, he started the protestant reformation and believed that the Bible alone was the teachings of god and that it was the source of his word. He took this first act by nailing his protests against Catholic doctrines to the door of the cathedral in Wittenberg in 1517. He had shaped the destiny of the Americas because if it wasn’t for his reformation, colonists wouldn’t be leaving Britain for religious freedom. He had started a “fire of Religious reform” throughout Europe from the protestant reformation. (43)
Magellan, Ferdinand
A Spanish Conquistador that sailed in 1519 with a fleet of 5 ships. He is famous for leading a voyage that would be the first to circumnavigate the globe which was completed in 1522 however only one ship returned home since others were lost at sea or taken when Magellan landed in the Philippines where he was killed by the inhabitants. Magellan was one of the many Spanish Conquistadors in search of fame in which he or his crew was the first to circle the globe but he died in the middle of that voyage. (16)
New England Confederation
A Union between 4 colonies that banded together in 1643 to form The New England Confederation. Their primary objective and goal was to be the defense against foes and future ones as well such as the Indians, French and Dutch. However it was known as an exclusive Puritan club. Due to that, they would often blackmail other states such as Maine or Rhode Island. It was a first start to completely unifying all the colonies even though it may have been a weak attempt. It was a start though since back at home, Great Britain didn’t pay much attention to the colonies. This allowed them to get a head start. (53)
Penn, William
The Founder of Pennsylvania in 1681. He was of the Quaker faith in 1660 at the age of 16, when he fled ot the New World, he left for the location where the previous QWuakers had already fled. It was in that year of 1681 that he secured a grant for some fertile land from the King. The land was called Pennsylvania or “Penn’s Woodland” in honor of his sire. It was here that Penn became one of the best advertisers for his land, sending out pamphlets in several languages. Pennsylvania was the best advertised of all the colonies. Penn was a good leader that welcomed anyone. He also attracted a large amount of immigrants because of his liberal land policy. (59)
Pizarro, Francisco
Pizarro is another Spanish conquistador that came to modern day Peru in the year 1532. He was known for crushing the Incas with an iron fist. He returned to Spain with a vast amount of fame and fortune. He was one of many that came to the new world in search of fortune and in the end he returned and contributed to Spain’s fortune where they were flowing with silver and gold from the new world by the 1600’s. Unlike some explorers trying to take over Indians, he was successful in his voyage. (17)
Raleigh, Sir Walter
Launched failed attempts to colonize the New World. He was one of the queen’s favorites and was a loyal supporter of the queen often wearing the colors of the queen and using her emblem which was a pearl in his left ear. With his failures and the act of seducing one of the Queen’s maids of honor, he was beheaded for treason after the fact that he started to challenge Catholic Spain’s dominance in the Americas. (26)
Spanish Armada
The Spanish Armada was the idea of creating an abundance of ships to be used in the invasion of Europe. With that amount of ships, they believed they would be invincible. This was proven wrong when the British used ships that were more easy to maneuver that did much more damage to the Spanish ships that were harder to control. The Armada was then hit another blow when a storm hit the fleet during the invasion leaving them to retreat. The armada was then scattered and crippled. It was this idea that was the beginning and the end of the Spanish Imperial dreams of dominance over Europe (26)
Treaty of Todesillas
An agreement between Portugal and Spain on the discovery of the Americas. It was a document that stated that Portugal would receive any land to the east of the territory line they agreed on, this included Brazil and Africa, however it was Spain that received most of the Americas to the west of the territory line due to the fact that the actual territory line was only affecting South America. So in turn, Spain had the Americas and Portugal received Africa as well as Brazil, that is why most people from Brazil speak Portuguese. (16)
Williams, Roger
Roger was a man that was a threat to the Puritan leaders. He was young and had radical ideas, he also tended to never hold his tongue. He challenged the Bay Colony’s charter as well as denied the authority of the government there to regulate religious behavior. In 1635, the colony couldn’t tolerate anymore and charged him with disseminating “newe and dangerous opinions” and was later banished. He couldn’t leave though due to an illness and was permitted to stay a few months but he did not stop criticizing them. Plans were made to exile him but he had foiled them. (48)
Winthrop, John
The first governor of the Bay Colony. His past includes him being a successful attorney and one of the manor lords in England, he chose to accept the position of mayor because he thought it was a calling from god, his position would last for 19 years because of his skillset. He was able to help Massachusetts prosper in fur trading, fishing, and shipbuilding which become some of the important industries. It was quickly made one of the biggest outposts of New England. It was John who brought the colony to prosperity. (46)
Edwards, Jonathan
A preacher centered in Northampton, Massachusetts. He was an intellectual pastor and was known as one of the deepest theological mind in America at the time, he proclaimed with a passion that salvation was obtainable through good works and depending on god. He used preaching techniques that scared his followers of hell and to live a life of salvation, it was his preaching style that was observed by others and he was the first to ignite the Great Awakening of religious revival. (96)
Great Awakening
Known as the religious revival that spread very rapidly through the colonies. Jonathan Edwards was responsible for starting the Great Awakening, it was he that proclaimed that the only way to salvation was through good works and depending on god, he created a vision of hell that he portrayed to his followers and it was the preaching style that he used that would later be part of the Great Awakening. It was before the great awakening that religion was less of an influence than it had been, as time went on, more and more people turned their heads to religion especially what had happened at the Massachusetts Bay Colony. So this type of environment caused the Great Awakening as if it were the perfect stage for religious revival. (96-97)
Molasses Act
Due to America finding more international trade places rather than Britain such as France, Parliament had passed the Molasses Act which was restrictions on where America could sell goods and export items to. The main idea of this act was to stop the trading between America and the French West Indies. The scheme was to deal a crushing blow to American international trade and hinder the standard of living for colonists. A way for merchants to get around this act was to bribe the local law enforcement or smuggle the items out. (93)
Paxton Boys
a march of Scots-Irish frontiersmen that protested the Quaker oligarchy’s policies that were focused towards the natives. The protest happened in Philadelphia in 1764. A few years later, they ran the regulator movement in Northern Carolina, it was a protest against the eastern domination of the colony’s affairs. The reason for many of the protests by the Paxton Boys was because of the fact that they disagreed with the British government and showed them no compassion because of the fact that they were uprooted by them. (88)
Poor Richard’s Almanac
Created by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) is a book written that contains thoughts on religion such as “A good Example is the best sermon” or “Many have quarreled about religion that never practiced it” It is a book that probably portrayed how religion should be worshiped, it was probably near the time period of the great awakening and acted as a guide for people of different faiths. This book contained Franklin’s thoughts on religion and how it should be practiced. (96)
Triangular Trade Route (Triangle Trade)
It was another trade route but it was infamous way for getting a large amount of profit. It was trade along the atlantic ocean that was connected to Africa, Europe, and the Americas. Triangle trade was also responsible for the start of slavery because of the fact that Europeans and colonists could get slaves for nearly nothing, an example from the book would be were a colonist takes a few bottles of rum and returns with a plethora of slaves. The reason why it was so popular was because the places they traded to did not know of European goods, therefore, they paid more for it and in this case it would be through slaves. It was one of the many ways for Europeans to make a profit. (92-93)
Whitefield, George
A preacher such as Jonathan Edwards that changed the preaching style later in years. He had booming voice that enticed his listeners, he used speech as a way to say what he had to say about religion and about man’s helplessness. His speech was eloquent and some actors at the time said that he could sweep the audience off their feet just by pronouncing Mesopotamia. It is showed in the picture on page 96 that Americas of both genders and any race were spellbound by his voice and how he compelled to emotion when he preached, he was another preacher just like Edwards. (97)
Zenger Decision
It was one of the steps toward freedom of speech. It was Peter Zenger’s argument that was an achievement for freedom of the press and for new steps towards democracy. The newspaper that Zenger oversaw was one that denounced the corrupt royal governor, causing Zenger to be accused of seditious libel. But through his argument he stated that it was the printed truth and due to the power of British rule being challenged, they deemed him not guilty because they court did not want any uprisings, that is why it was the first step towards freedom of speech. (100-101)
Battle of Quebec
It was the British takeover of the city of Quebec on September 13, 1759. British went around the city scaling the cliffs and defeated the French Army there. This first battle caused a domino effect of the French losing Montreal, which was the last French bastion in North America. This caused conflict to arise among British and French for another 2 years until being halted after the Treaty of Paris had been signed causing France to no longer be a colonial power in North America (118)
Champlain, Samuel
The leading figure of the French settlement of Quebec in 1608. He was a soldier and explorer, his leadership abilities earned him the title “father of new France.” He started off the colony by making friendly relations with the local Huron Native tribes. He was also successful in aiding the natives in a battle against the Iroquois tribes in the upper New York region. He was the first to successfully establish a French colony until the colony was later overran by the British in 1759. (107)
Fort Duquesne
A formidable British fort that was in the process of being erected by the French who were taking out forts among the Ohio river. The reason why it was so powerful was the fact that it was on the junction where the Allegheny River joined the Monongahela River to form the Ohio. It was here were George Washington was sent to secure this land, they encountered a small detachment of French soldiers about 40 miles from the fort. The leader was killed and Washington proceeded on to finish the claims he was assigned to. (112)
Pitt, William
A British Leader of the common people and a passionate believer in his cause. He was responsible for leading a powerful expedition in 1758 against Louisbourg, a French fortress that fell after a siege lead by Pitt. He was responsible for being a part of taking the French settlement of Quebec and starting conflicts with them, this was done by scaling the cliffs and taking the city by force. His successes caused later conflicts with France but also rejoicing in Britain. (115)
Pontiac’s Rebellion
Led by Ottawa Chef Pontiac in 1763 along with French traders, was a span of violent campaigns to drive the British out of Ohio country. They took over Detroit in 1763 as well as took over 3 British posts to the west of the Appalachian Mountains. Over the time, 2000 British were killed. The British reacted to this cruelly by using biological warfare, one example of this was ordering blankets infected with smallpox to be distributed to the Indians which took them out swiftly. The uprising was now crushed and Pontiac himself fell to the hands of a rival chieftain in 1769 (120)
Proclamation of 1763
a treaty established by the London government to prohibit settlement of any area beyond the Appalachian Mountain Range. It was basically used to work out the Indian problem fairly and prevent future uprisings rather than restrict colonists. It was a deterrence and a safeguard. The only problem was that Americas did not agree to this and were angered. They defied the orders and instead took 1,000 wagons and rolled up west. (121)
Treaty of 1713
A peace agreement between Britain and France as well as its Spanish ally. Britain was rewarded with French populated Acadia as well as Newfoundland and Hudson Bay. The British also won limited trading rights in the Spanish America region. As a result of this, smuggling became prevalent and the France settlement of St. Lawrence became choked as they were cut off from supply and were no longer able to sustain a population there. It the end the agreement gave Britain, the victor, everything that it was fighting for as well as opening up small trade. (110)
Treaty of Paris (1763)
A peace settlement at Paris that caused French power to be thrown out of America, only leaving the population for French speaking people in Canada. The peace treaty was an agreement to stop all conflicts among the French and British after the taking of Quebec in 1759 as well as ending the 7 years war. French power fell leading America to emerge as the dominant power in North America, this was also true to the fact that Britain had the strongest and most feared navy. (116, 118)
Adams, Samuel
A man part of the First Continental Congress of 1774. He was one of the 55 most respected men in all of the colonies as well as one of all the men that signed the Declaration of Independence. He was also known as a ringleader of the colonists in the eyes of the British when they came to seize colonial gunpowder from Lexington and Concord. Adams was a leading figure in hosting the Boston Tea Party as well as being known as an organizer of the rebellion. (130, 134)
Boston Massacre
The evening of March 5, 1770 when 2 regiments of troops opened fired on citizens and killed/wounded 11 people. The soldiers felt provoked by the crowd that was taunting them with snowballs. The people were protesting about the death of a boy who was shot by a British trooper during another protest involving a merchant defying the colonial boycott of British goods. One important figure was Crispus Attucks who was a runaway “mulatto” as well as one of the leaders of the mob. Both sides of this were to blame for their actions. (129, 130)
Boston Tea Party
The Boston Tea Party occurred on the night of December 16, 1773. It was in sense a protest to the tax on tea. American colonists disguised themselves as Indians called referred to this as “making the Boston Harbor a teapot” They threw chests of British imported tea into the harbor worth thousands of dollars. As a result of this, the British passed the intolerable acts, among them was the Boston Port Act that required the colonists to pay off all the damages or else the port would be closed. (132)
Committees of Correspondence
Groups that had one goal of spreading the spirit of resistance to British rule by exchanging letters and keep opposition alive towards the British. The first one was set up in Boston in 1772 and after a while, 80 towns had set up similar ones. The next step was intercolonial committees that were set up in Virginia in 1773, they created a committee that took the place of the house of Burgesses. These groups would then form in every colony and eventually form into the first American congresses. (131)
First Continental Congress
It was a meeting in Philadelphia to discuss some of the colonies issues that were occurring due to the Intolerable acts. This occurred in 1774 were all the colonies met together bringing the first steps of unification. Among this meeting were 55 of the most well respected men in all of the colonies such as John and Samuel Adams, George Washington, and Patrick Henry. It was considered a convention rather than a congress when it occurred from September 5 to October 26. They came to the agreement of several documents such as the Declaration of Rights. (133-134)
Intolerable Acts
These were acts in response to the Boston Tea party in order to prevent a revolution from occurring. They were designed for Massachusetts but for the city of Boston in particular. It was known as the massacre of American liberty to American colonists at the time, examples of some include the Boston Port Act which required that the colony pay off all damages or the Port will be closed off. The British no longer trusted Boston and they stripped the city of its rights due to the event of the Boston Tea Party (132)
Lexington and Concord
A skirmish between the British Army and the Colonist Militia. The British commander sent a group of troops to seize gunpowder in Lexington and Concord in April 1775. At Lexington, the British Brutally shot men that apparently didn’t leave the area quick enough and that was known as the Lexington Massacre. At Concord, the British fought and had to retreat due to the fact that the American Colonists were placed strategically and were ready to fight off the British. (134)
Navigation Acts
Passed by Prime Minister George Grenville expressing his resentment towards colonists by ordering the British navy to enforce the navigation laws in 1763. It was to restrict colonial expansion and was one of many acts that would later be passed. This was one of the acts before the quartering act and stamp act and was one of the first steps to rebellion by the colonists as the British imposed these new rules. (125)
Quartering Act
Imposed by Prime Minister George Grenville in 1765, it required that certain colonies had to provide food and shelter for British troops. Colonists were upset with this due to the fact that the troops would abuse the place they were staying at and colonists could not deny any troop. Another reason as to why this was passed was due to the resentment Grenville had towards the colonists (125)
Quebec Act
The Quebec act passed in 1774 guaranteed the French their Catholic religion and that they were permitted to continue with their traditional customs. It also extended the boundaries of Quebec towards the south to the Ohio River. However this caused the colonists to worry about land restrictions as well as be angered that land was snatched from them. It also upset anti-Catholics that were shocked that the land area was extended for Roman Catholics. This act was believed as a good act but in bad company. (133)
Sons of Liberty
Colonial protestors against British rule that took the law into their own hands. They cried out Liberty, Property, and No Stamps. They were also known for coating loyalists and British officials with tar and feathers which was public humiliation. They broke into houses of unpopular officials, took their money, as well as humiliated them publicly. This violence and protest caused the stamp agents to surrender and be forced to resign. (127)
Stamp Act
Another method to get Britain out of debt and raise revenue to support their military force. The stamp act of 1765 required that stamps be put on all types of legal/commercial documents. This certified that the tax was paid. Another reason as to why people were upset with this was the fact that they had no say in this and they repeatedly cried out no taxation without representation. They wanted a say in this before it was passed by Britain. (125, 126)
Stamp Act Congress
A group of 27 distinguished delegates from nine colonies that met together in New York City in 1765 to create a statement of their rights and grievances to tell the king. It was a statement that asked for the king and Parliament to repeal the repugnant legislation. However it was ignored in England. However even though it made a small impact, it was seen as one of the first steps of unity among the colonies. (127)
Tea Act
The tea act was yet again a tax on tea however it made some of the tea cheaper to the American colonists, therefore they viewed as a trick. They thought the cheaper tea was bait into making them accustomed to taxes in general. They started paying the tax because legal tea was no cheaper than tea that was from England or was smuggled. The reason as to why the tea was so cheap was because they had over 17 million pounds of unsold tea and they were becoming burdened with it and needed a way to raise revenue quickly to pay off debt (131)
Townshend Acts
Was another method of getting Britain out of debt after the war with France. This failed to produce revenue, it was yet another tax on the colonists that only produced 295 euros each year which was nothing compared to the 170,000 euros of military costs. This angered the colonists and drove them toward rebellion. It was known as a failed attempt by King George the 3rd and prime minister, Lord North, to keep power over the colonies as well as getting them out of debt. (130)
Battle of Saratoga
The battle in which General John Burgoyne surrenders his army to the Americans because he cannot advance or retreat becoming cornered. This even occurred on October 17, 1777 and it is ranked highest on decisive battles in History. This battle also made it possible for America to receive foreign aid from France since they were reluctant on providing aid in the first place. Now that the British were present, France provided the aid that would help ensure American Independence. (153, 154)
Battle of Yorktown
After the British had to fall back from Virginia to Chesapeake Bay at Yorktown, they stayed there and waited for reinforcements and supplies. The men there were hoping that the navy would come to give them aid but that navy was in a period of time were it was no longer the best. It was Washington who was coming from New York and the French army coming in the opposite direction. The British army was then cornered and caused General Cornwallis to surrender over seven thousand men on October 19, 1781. However to was by the help of the French that America could win this battle since they established naval superiority as well as providing half the ground troops. (158)
Burgoyne, General John
Known as Gentleman Johnny, he was responsible for pushing down the Lake Champlain route. He was one of the strongest generals for the British army, he made a slow and steady invasion with 7,000 men but it was until the battle of Saratoga on October 17, 1777 when he became cornered by Washington’s Army and he was able to advance or retreat forcing him to surrender by the American General Horatio Gates. (153)
Common Sense
Published in 1776, it was considered one of the most influential pieces of writing ever made. The author was Thomas Paine and his piece became a whirlwind best seller in the few coming months, reaching a number or 120,000 sold copies. Common Sense was another way to fight the war but through psychological warfare by promoting the rebellion with Britain and gaining the support of the colonists (144)
Cornwallis, General Charles
The British General that lead his men into battle and was driven back from Virginia. He fled to Yorktown to regroup and resupply but it was there were he became cornered by the French and American armies due to the British Navy failing, he surrendered over seven thousand men. He was also beaten by the Quaker General, Nathanael Greene and was uprooted out of Georgia and South Carolina. (157, 158)
Olive Branch Petition
established on July 1775 after the battle of Bunker Hill, it was a proclamation professing the American loyalty to the crown, it asked the king to end any hostilities. This was futile because after Bunker Hill, King George III declared that the colonies were in rebellion in August 1775, ending all hopes of reconciliation. (141)
Second Continental Congress
Met on May 10, 1775, a month after Lexington and Concord in April. It was a response to this battle and this time all 13 colonies were represented. Even though they discussed the battle, there was still no plan present whether or not they wanted independence, they only wanted more resistance so the king and parliament would readdress the grievances. It was this meeting were the British and Americans were on the brink of war.(140)
Treaty of Paris (1783)
This signifies the end of the war where the British formally recognize that the United States has become independent. The British also granted generous boundaries by giving them land in the north and south, probably to appeal to outside help as well (Spanish and French). The United States was now divorced from the empire, they received their share of the priceless fisheries in Newfoundland. Another side note was the Canadians were unhappy about this (160)
Constitutional Convention
A convention held in Massachusetts to draft its constitution. The final draft was submitted to the people for ratification. Later adopted in 1780, the Massachusetts constitution could only be changed by another constitutional convention. These were held over by congress to draft the constitution and eventually one for all of the United States since most of the state constitutions were nearly the same. They took the idea that a constitution was an accumulation of customs, procedures and laws for the federal constitution that would later be signed in 1787. (168, 180)
Electoral College
A group of people that would elect the president indirectly rather than directly. It was an early form of democracy however it was choosing the leaders by a select few instead of the general public. Electoral Colleges determined the number of electoral votes a state had, more people in the state meant more representatives in the Electoral College. These Lordly Senators were to be chosen using the same methods of electing presidents by the state legislatures. (181)
The Federalist
A book written by John Jay and James Madison that gave commentary of the constitution through penetrating words to the public. It is sold in a book form and was widely sold. These two people wanted to give support to the idea of federalism. One example of the popular book was Federalist Number 10, which stated that it was impossible to have a republican form of government over such a large land territory over all 13 colonies. (185)
Great Compromise
A plan to come into agreement on how states would be represented in congress. The larger states would be given representation by population in the House of Representatives and the smaller states were protected in the fact that they were given equal representation in the Senate. Each state would have 2 senators regardless of size and whether or not they were in poverty. However the big states had yielded more, to counter this, the delegates agreed that every tax bill would originate in the house in which population was counted heavily. This compromise made success within reach to unify the colonies. (180)
Land Ordinance of 1785
It was known as one of the first red letter laws providing that the acreage of the Old NW would be sold and the profit made will be used to pay off national debt. The area would be surveyed before purchase and settlement and the land there would be divided to form townships. The Old Northwest is an area of land that was northwest of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi as well as south of the Great Lakes (174)
New Jersey Plan
It was also known as the small state plan, it provided equal representatio0n in Congress by states regardless of how large it was or how much the population was. The people of New Jersey created this because they feared that the stronger states would work together and control the smaller states, they wanted equal representation. It caused large amounts of debate and people including Ben Franklin took precautions to make sure that no one get hurt, so he started everything with a prayer (179)
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
Compared to the Land Ordinance of 1785 as being more important because of the fact that it related to governing the area of Old Northwest. Congress was running into the problem of how a nation should deal with its colonies and who should govern them. What they first did was establish the area and then the area would receive 60,000 settlers to make it become owned land property. Another side note is that this ordinance prohibited slavery as well. (174)
Shay’s rebellion
An uprising that was caused in Massachusetts in 1786. Most of them were back country farmers with some being Revolutionary war veterans, were losing farmland through mortgage foreclosures and tax. The rebellion was led by Captain Daniel Shays, a fellow war veteran during the revolution. They demanded that the state issue paper money and lighten taxes, they seized muskets and attempted to enforce the demands made. During a skirmish in Springfield 3 of these members were killed and the movement failed. (176)
Three-Fifths Compromise
It was a compromise between the debate whether a slave of the southern states count as a person in apportioning direct taxes. The North said that they were not citizens and they also demand additional representation based on its horses while the south said yes because they wanted influence. As a compromise to this, a slave would count as 3/5’s of a man which would solve the debates but still cause the slaves to have no rights (181)
Virginia Plan
This occurred at the Philadelphia convention and was the exact opposite of the New Jersey plan. It was known as the large state plan because of the fact that it stated that representation should be based off of population which would favor larger states such as Virginia. This caused the New Jersey plan to occur to contradict this plan because of the fact that the smaller states did not want to be overpowered by larger states. The large state plan however was never passed. (179)
Alien and Sedition Acts
These were laws that were meant to minimize people that opposed Jefferson and Federalism. One of them was aimed at “aliens” which were most European immigrants at the time, these people lacked money and were scorned by the Federalist party. These laws deterred immigrants from coming by raising the residence requirements, violating the traditional American policy of open immigration. Another law was imposed in which the president was able to deport dangerous foreigners during times of war. Finally the last act, the lockjaw sedition Act, stated that any individual who disagreed with officials and the government could receive heavy fines and time in prison (205)
Bank of the United States
Proposed by Hamilton as the capstone for his idea of a financial system in which the government would be a major stockholder where the federal treasury would deposit surplus money. The bank would print money if needed and provide stable currency for the nation. Federal funds would stimulate businesses in the US by keeping money in circulation making the bank useful, however it ran into the debate of whether it was useful or not. (195)
Citizen Genet
A rep of the French Republic that arrived in Charleston in South Carolina, he outfitted privateers to take advantage of the Franco-American Alliance. He believed that the Neutrality Proclamation did not reflect the true wishes of the American people, he embarked on un-neutral activity that he had not been authorized for by the French Alliance, one example was the recruitment of armies to invade Spanish Florida. After several outbreaks and threatening to appeal over the head of “Old Washington,” the president demanded his removal and replacement.(199)
French Revolution
the result of France declaring war on Austria and declaring itself a republic, after centuries of pent-up “poison,” the people decided to behead the king in 1793, attack the church and start a reign of terror. The impact of the revolution was that America started to become worried about France, calling them blood-drinking cannibals for instance. The revolution would affect future relations with France and the Americas such as creating the Franco-American Alliance. (198)
Hamilton, Alexander
(1755-1804) He is believed to be the youngest and most brilliant of all the founding fathers. He had the opportunity to become president but after problems arose such as his ultraconservatism, committing of adultery, and losing to a duel, he could not (especially after the duel). He favored a strong central government unify the new nation and encourage industry with plans like the Bank of the United States. His rival was Thomas Jefferson who emphasized liberty ant that the US should remain agricultural society, Hamilton even suggested that the British Government was the best in the world. (193)
Jay’s Treaty
In an effort to avert war with Britain, Congress sent John Jay to London in 1794 in which people feared he would sell the country out. Jay’s treaty seemed like surrender to Britain and causing planters to pay a major share of debts from the Revolutionary war. His treaty also caused Spain to strike a deal with the US. Pinckney’s treaty of 1795 granted Spain basically anything that they demanded, this included free navigation of the Mississippi in a disputed territory north of Florida. This treaty also caused Washington to retire as president. (201)
Judiciary Act of 1789
Created by the first congress to create effective federal courts under this act, it organized the Supreme Court which would have a chief justice and five associates. It created a federal district and circuit courts as well as established an office of the attorney general. The collaborator of Madison’s Federalist papers, known as John Jay became the first chief justice of the United States. This was an act to preserve and create a strong central government. (192,193)
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
in fear of prosecution for sedition, this was signed in secret by Jefferson in 1780. It was a series of resolutions drafted by both Jefferson and Madison, each document stressing the same idea of the compact theory. It is a concept that stated that the 13 colonies had entered a compact or contract that would regard its jurisdiction, it stated that the national government was the creation of the states. The Kentucky resolutions concluded that the federal regime had exceeded constitutional powers. Both resolutions were a formulation of the states’ rights view regarding the Union, both were documents that were created to develop opposition to the federalist party. (206, 207)
Neutrality Proclamation
A treaty in which American neutrality favored France. The Americans would supply the French West Indies with foodstuffs but not enter the war with Britain because British fleets would cut them off of supply. America was an ally to France but was more useful by becoming a reliable neutral provider than being blocked and doing nothing. It stated that self-interest is the basic cement of alliances and this is how America and France became neutral during the war with Britain. (199)
Treaty of Greeneville
signed in August of 1795, it caused the confederacy to give up areas of the northwest such as present day Indiana and Ohio, the Indians would receive a payment of 20000, an annual annuity of 9000, rights to hunt the lands ceded by them and the recognition of Indians that they were of a sovereign status. This treaty would stop the American tribes from terrorizing American settlers coming into this territory. (200)
Washington’s Farewell Address
Washington became tired after the diplomatic and partisan battles during his second term, he retired and this contributed to establishing a two term tradition for American Presidents, hence why presidents today serve 2 terms at most. He delivered his Farewell Address to the nation in 1796 through the use of newspapers. In his address he gave advice that America avoid permanent alliances such as the Franco-American Treaty of 1778 and stated that America should favor temporary alliances for emergencies when needed, this is so America would not be taken advantage of. He retired but still gave America the advice to achieve and mature over time. (201)
Whiskey Rebellion
a challenge to the new national government by southwestern Pennsylvania in 1794. People viewed Hamilton’s high tax on pioneer folk as a burden on an economic necessity. This caused distillers to erect whiskey poles similar to the liberty poles during the stamp act in 1765 as well as raising the cry of Liberty and NO Excise. This is because ye and corn crops distilled into alcohol were cheaper to transport to eastern markets than bales of grain. (196)
XYZ Affair
These were necessarily a set of bribes known as XYZ. Adam’s envoys reached Paris in 1797 in hopes of meet Talleyrand, foreign minister of France. The French spokesmen demanded an un-neutral loan of 32 million florins and a bribe of 250000 in order to talk with Talleyrand. The American trio knew that bribes were standard diplomatic devices in Europe and they gagged at the thought of paying that much to talk with the minister. It was the basic idea that Adams’s envoys were asked to pay a bribe in order to do diplomatic business, causing Americans to retaliate to this. (203)
12th Amendment
This was established during the Election between Jefferson and Adams in which Jefferson had reached a deadlock in electoral votes for him and Burr. Under the constitution, the tie was only about to be broken by the House of Representatives. The house held voting sessions in which who will win the election but it kept coming up as a tie, vote session after vote session came after a few federalists didn’t vote after exhaustion and the idea that they would receive moderation from Jefferson. (214)
Bonaparte, Napoleon
The French Dictator that quickly rose to power, he was a strong general as well as a corrupt leader, wanting to seize control of larger amounts of land from other nations, he wanted world domination. He wanted to create a new world empire in Louisiana. When he received the trans-Mississippi region of Louisiana from the king of Spain he was quick to sell it after he received news that America would possibly be making an alliance with Britain, so he wanted to create good relations with America, therefore he sold the Louisiana Purchase cheap. (204, 220, 221)
Burr Conspiracies
One of burr’s acts was when he joined with a group of Federalist extremists that plotted to secede New England and New York, when Hamilton stopped the plot, Burr killed him in a duel. Burr killed the “brightest brain” out of the Federalist Party. He then proceeded to ally himself with General James Wilkinson, they planned to separate the western part of the US from the East and expand by invading Spanish territory. In 1806, he was betrayed by Wilkinson after he learned that Jefferson had found out about the plot. Burr was arrested and tried for treason. (224, 225)
Chesapeake Affair
This event was what had caused the Embargo act to take place, it was when a royal British frigate overhauled a US frigate known as the Chesapeake, the captain demanded the surrender of 4 British deserters suspected of being on the Chesapeake. The captain refused and was unprepared to fight. In response to the refusal, the warship fired 3 cannons at the merchant ship, killing 3 Americans and wounding 18 of them. The Deserters were dragged away and the ship barely made it back to port, this inspired the Embargo act so merchant ships wouldn’t be caught amongst the warring nations. (226)
Embargo Act
Passed in 1807, the Embargo act forbade the export of all goods from the US, whether it was in an American or foreign ship. This was in response to the warring nations in Europe depending on America heavily for supplies. Jefferson believed that if America cease trade with them, it will cause the nations to “bow their heads” and recognized them as a nation and respect their rights. The problem with this act is that the American economy started to fail before it could make an effect on the countries of France and Britain. Another fact was that they were becoming overstocked with the amounts of cotton, grain, and tobacco. It seemed as if Jefferson was starting a war with his citizens that could in turn hurt the republic. During this time, the Federalist Party started to rise again, after a “storm of public anger” congress repealed the act on March 1st of 1809. (226, 227)
Judiciary Act of 1801
Known as the “deathbed” Judiciary Act of 1801, passed by the diminishing Federalist congress as one of its last laws to pass. It would create 16 new federal judgeships and more judicial offices. It had bitter resentment, packing the spots of the federal judgeships with anti-Jeffersonian supporters. The new republican Congress repealed the act a year after it was passed and they removed all 16 benches and the “overnight judges.” It was a last-ditch effort made by the Federalists. (218)
Lewis and Clark
The 2 American explorers appointed by and tasked by Jefferson to explore the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase in 1804. Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, with the aid of Shoshoni woman Sacajawea, ascended the Missouri River from St. Louis. They climbed the Rockies and descended the Columbia River to the Pacific Coast. They found the northwest. The expedition took 2 ½ years to complete and it yielded an abundance of scientific observations, maps, as well as the knowledge of Indians in the area. (222, 223)
Louisiana Purchase
Came from two events that made this possible and that was when America was deciding to create an alliance with Britain and during the slave revolt that happened on the Island of Santo Domingo. Napoleon at the time sold the land of Louisiana to America so he could create good relations with America as well as get rid of an area that demanded more supplies, so it gave France money as well. He also sold this land cheaply out of desperation and fear that the British would make him “gift” the land to the colonies. (221)
L’Ouverture, Toussaint
(1743-1803) Ex-slave and well educated in the military, he organized a slave revolt on the island of Santo Domingo known as modern day Haiti. He put up a stubborn resistance to the French troops who also had to deal with the mosquitos on the island, these two factors made this the first successful slave takeover in history. L’Ouverture later died in a French Dungeon and he indirectly helped set up the sale for Louisiana through his slave revolt. (221)
Macon’s Bill
This came after the Embargo act and it stated that if either Britain or France repeals its commercial restrictions, America would then enact the embargo against the nation that did not repeal. It was the revival of the embargo act in a sense. It indirectly stated that the US could not survive without at least one of the allies to trade with commercially. But it gave the nations a choice as to who would be America’s ally. The problem with this was Britain saw no need to trade with America and Napoleon saw this as an advantage so when America reestablished the embargo act on Britain, it took them a step closer to war. (228)
Marbury v. Madison
a court case on who had the final authority to determine the meaning of the constitution. Based on Marshall’s decision to promote the contrary principle of judicial review, it caused Jeffersonians to seek revenge and that was through the impeachment of the Supreme Court Justice, Samuel Chase. However this was not possible due to the fact that he was only hated and did not commit any crimes, therefore they could not trial him as guilty. Therefore Chase was never removed.
Revolution of 1800
It was more like a revolution without bloodshed during the election of 1800 between Jefferson and Adams. He had won by a majority of 73 electoral votes over 65 and he also was able to have Adams be replaced as the VP. John Adams was in fact the last federal president in the united states and the republicans took over which caused a revolution of some sort due to the leadership of America going from Federalist to Republican. However this “revolution” barely made it because of the fact that there was a 250 vote difference in New York between Adams winning the election. (214, 215)
Tecumseh
He, along with Tenskwatawa inspired a movement of Indian unity and cultural renewal, giving up things like textile clothing for traditional, buck-skin garments. He also abandoned the idea of “ownership.” Tecumseh is a Shawnee Indian who was born in Ohio Country and another idea that he held was that he would not permit the selling of land unless all Indians agreed to it because he believed this land belonged to the Indians. When Harrison’s army retaliated after a small Shawnee attack on the army, they then proceeded to burn down one of the settlements, causing Tecumseh to alliance with Britain. When the war with Britain came, he fought alongside the British until he died in 1813 during the Battle of the Thames. (230, 231)
Tripoli Conflict
Unsatisfied by the amount of tribute money given to him, the pasha of Tripoli declared war on the US by cutting down the flag of the American consulate. Jefferson dispatched ships to the shores of Tripoli where the conflict started in 1801. From there, 4 years of fighting occurred. In 1805, Jefferson was able to extort a treaty of peace from Tripoli in which America only had to pay 60,000 for ransom of American soldiers. This war also leads to the building of small gunboats that Jefferson was fascinated by. (220)
The American System
A form of nationalism in economics in response to the British sending their overstocked items to America after the hostilities ended in 1815. The system had 3 parts in the fact that it began with a strong national bank system, providing easy credit to the nation. Revenues from the tariffs would provide funds and the system was established as a network of roads and canals for transportation. This made it easy to transport foodstuffs and raw materials from the South and West to Northern and Easter locations. It was industrialization and how it would later spread throughout the country. (241)
Battle of New Orleans
This was in January 8 of 1815 when the confident British army thought that the American army would be an easy win. When they launched a front assault on New Orleans they made the mistake in the fact that they met riflemen and cannoneers. This hit the British army hard in the fact that the death toll was over 2,000 and it was the most devastating defeat of the entire war in a battle that only lasted an hour and a half. However it was viewed as an astonishing for Jackson and his men and caused widespread cheering occurred in the country and Andrew Jackson became a hero. (235, 236)
Bladensburgh races
This is best defined as the retreat of the American Militia of 6,000 men in Bladensburg in response to the imposing British force that was rapidly advancing on Washington. The British Invaders then set fire to the capital and public buildings such as the Capitol and White house. Even though the capital was lost to the siege, men in Baltimore still put up a strong fight and they were hammered by British artillery but still stayed strong. This proposed the song, “Star-Spangled Banner” which grew popular after this battle. (235)
Cohens vs. Virginia
a Court case occurring in 1821 that gave Chief justice John Marshall the opportunity to express federal power. The Cohens were found guilty by the Virginia courts of illegal selling of lottery tickets. Causing Virginia to win the case however this was not the true result because of the fact that Marshall asserted the right of the Supreme Court to review the decisions in which he would challenge the power of the state supreme courts and power of the federal government. This then led to the Gibbons V. Ogden case known as the steamboat case of 1824 (249)
Dartmouth College vs. Woodwork
this goes into the aspect that states cannot change laws that would conflict with the federal constitution as stated by Marshal. So during this case in 1819, the college was granted a charter by King George III in 1769 but New Hampshire state legislature (mostly democratic) saw it best to change it. Marshall put the states in their place by stating that the original charter must stand and that it was contract that the constitution protected. This was beneficial in the aspect that it guarded business enterprises from being dominated by state governments. (250)
Era of Good Feeling
The phrase used to describe the term of Monroe as president. It was also the era of rising nationalism from Monroe’s campaign. During the election he won a crushing 183 electoral votes over 34 over his federalist opponent. Nationalism emerged from different aspects of his presidency including one time when he went to take a tour of the military defenses in 1817. He was well loved in the fact that even people in federalist states would welcome him even though it was called “enemy territory” Even though that tranquility and prosperity was in the era of good feelings, the period was still a troubled time because of issues of the tariff, bank and improvements on the sale of public lands. Another aspect that was part of the era was the rising tensions of the conflict over slavery. (242)
Gibbons vs. Ogden
Known as the steamboat case in 1824. It was a law suit that was the result of an attempt made by New York to grant a private monopoly for commerce between New York and New Jersey. Marshall dealt another blow to the states’ rights by reminding them that only congress alone had the control of interstate commerce. It was a strong blow to states’ rights but it still upheld the powers of the federal government. After this case, interstate streams were cleared of this problem with monopolies. (249)
Key, Francis Scott
the known author of the well-loved song, The Star-Spangled Banner. He was a detained American on board of a British ship that had the opportunity to see the bombardment of Fort McHenry, he was inspired by the defenders of the fort to write the lyrics to this song and this song would later grow in popularity after the battle had been won. (235)
