Idiograhic And Nomithetic Approaches To Psychological Investigation Flashcards
Idiographic
The term ‘idiographic’ comes from the Greek word ‘idios’, which means ‘own’ or ‘private’. Psychologists who take an idiographic approach focus on the individual, and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature.
Nomothetic
The term ‘nomothetic’ comes from the Greek word ‘nomos’ which means ‘law’. Psychologists who take a nomothetic approach are concerned with establishing general laws, based on the study of large groups of people, and the use of statistical (quantitative) techniques to analyse data.
A01 The idiographic approach
The term ‘idiographic’ comes from the Greek word ‘idios’, which means ‘own’ or ‘private’. Psychologists who take an idiographic approach focus on the individual and emphasise on the unique personal experience of every human and respect that all humans are different. Therefore they do not make comparisons with others or a larger group. This means they favour qualitative research methods, such as the case study, unstructured interviews and thematic analysis which allow an in-depth insight into individual behaviour. The idiographic approach does not seek to formulate laws or generalise results to others.
Case studies provide an interesting example of an idiographic approach, as they provide an in-depth insight into an individual or small group which can be used to evaluate a theory. For example, Shallice and Warrington (1970) examined the case of Patient KF, who experienced a motorbike accident. KF’s short-term forgetting of auditory information was greater than his forgetting of visual information, suggesting that short-term memory (STM) consists of multiple components. Consequently, Patient KF undermines the Multi-Store Model of Memory suggesting that STM is not one unitary component. Therefore, an individual case study can highlight flaws within a theory and significantly undermine other research.
Another example of an idiographic approach comes from Freud’s use of case studies. Freud conducted very detailed investigations into the lives of his patients in an attempt to understand and help them overcome their psychological disorders. His most famous case studies include Little Hans, Anna O and The Rat Man. While Freud did try to produce generalisations from his case studies, they are still viewed as an idiographic approach because each person’s psychological disorder derived from their unique childhood experiences.
Advantages of the idiographic approach
This approach with its in-depth qualitative methods of investigation, provides a complete and global account of the individual. This will then shed further light on the nomothetic approach in either challenging or supporting laws and principles. For example, when studying the case study of HM in terms of brain damage and memory, as well as understanding unique cases, this case study contributes to our overall understanding of normal memory functioning.
Furthermore, the case study method is a powerful tool for evaluating psychological theories. The case of Patient KF (Shallice and Warrington, 1970) exposed a limitation of the Multi-Store Model of Memory, by providing evidence that our STM comprises of at least two components (auditory and visual memory) and not one, as stipulated by Atkinson and Shiffrin. Consequently, a single case study can generate further research into a particular phenomenon (e.g. memory), which contributes to the development of new theories that further our understanding of human behaviour.
Disadvantages of the idiographic approach
The idiographic approach is unable to produce general laws or predictions about human behaviour, and that severely limits its usefulness as a source of practical knowledge about the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. For a discipline so dedicated to the application of its scientific understanding, this is a devastating limitation. Furthermore, many psychologists criticise the idiographic approach for its essentially unscientific nature. The emphasis on in-depth data collection and the difficulties in arriving at justifiable generalisations contradicts the central purpose of any mature science: to explain the most variation in the fewest possible terms so that phenomena can be predicted and ultimately controlled. Research practices that do not address these goals can seem scientifically pointless.
However, idiographic researchers respond to these criticisms by emphasising the evidence-based nature of their descriptions and conclusions, and the critical awareness embedded in research techniques like reflexivity, and often claim that the validity of their findings is more secure than that which rests entirely on statistical analysis. As Allport noted when introducing the terms into American psychology in 1937, it is only through the understanding of single individuals that psychologists can hope to predict how such individuals will behave in a given situation.
Another weakness of the idiographic approach is the use of case studies since while case studies can highlight a flaw in psychological theories and prompt further research, the case study method and other qualitative methods are extremely time-consuming. Freud’s case study of Little Hans consists of almost 150 pages of verbatim quotes from Little Hans’ father, as well as detailed descriptions of the events in Little Hans’ life. Freud did go on to create universal theories of personality development during childhood; however, these were based on limited and unrepresentative case studies that many psychologists would discredit.
A01 The nomothetic approach
The term ‘nomothetic’ comes from the Greek word ‘nomos’ which means ‘law’. Psychologists who take a nomothetic approach are involved in studying a large sample of participants and then using the findings to generate or substantiate general laws/models of behaviour. They will make inferences about the wider population by making generalisations. They will also make predictions about human behaviour. Psychologists who take the nomothetic approach use statistical (quantitative) techniques to analyse data. This means that experiments, correlations, psychometric testing and other quantitative methods are favoured among nomothetic researchers
Examples of nomothetic approach
Biological Psychologists take a nomothetic approach when explaining psychological disorders, such as OCD and depression. They typically pinpoint biological factors, such as neurotransmitters, that are responsible for such disorders and use biological therapies (e.g. drugs) to treat all patients.
Cognitive psychologists, such as Atkinson and Shiffrin, developed general laws, such as the Multi-Store Model of Memory, which they believed could be generalised to everyone.
Social psychologists, such as Milgram and Asch, used a nomothetic approach to create general conclusions about human behaviour: that situational factors are responsible for both obedience and conformity.
Also, Ainsworth who studied the strange situation in attachments concluded that there were three types of attachments – secure, insecure avoidant and insecure resistant. She did this by studying 108 American infants and their mothers and devised the strange situation method (a series of 7 episodes) to study the attachment behaviours of mothers and infants.
Furthermore, in the area of psychopathology, classification manuals such as DSM-V and ICD-10 take a nomothetic approach, as they classify people with psychological disorders on the basis of specific symptoms.
Behaviourists, such as Pavlov and Skinner, conducted experiments with animals in order to establish laws of learning (classical conditioning – Pavlov used dogs whereas Skinner used rats and pigeons to apply the principles of operant conditioning) that could be generalised to humans and non-human animals.
Advantages of the nomothetic approach
Unlike the idiographic approach, the nomothetic approach is considered as generally scientific. The use of experimental (quantitative) methods, controlled measurement and the ability to predict behaviour, are all seen as strengths of the nomothetic approach. Furthermore, controlled methods allow for replication to examine the reliability of findings which has helped psychology establish itself as a scientific discipline. The development of theories and empirical testing are just one of the key features of science that are employed by the nomothetic approach.
Furthermore, because the nomothetic approach is viewed as scientific, it is useful for predicting and controlling behaviour. For example, biological psychologists take a nomothetic approach when explaining obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and claim that OCD is caused by higher levels of dopamine and lower levels of serotonin. Drug therapies are developed on the basis of nomothetic research and work by redressing a biological imbalance. SSRIs are used to treat OCD and increase the availability and uptake of serotonin, thus reducing the anxiety associated with OCD, which helps to improve the lives of people suffering from this condition.
Disadvantages of the nomothetic approach
However, one issue with the nomothetic approach is the problem of generalisation. For example, when treating patients with depression, they tend to be prescribed anti-depressants (a nomothetic approach). However, as anti-depressants are not successful for all patients, some psychologists argue that alternative treatments for depression(e.g. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy), which are based on an idiographic approach, are more suitable for treating individuals with such conditions, as they seek to understand and explain the disorder from a patient’s point of view. This means that by assuming that all people with depression can be treated through anti-depressant drugs and taking this nomothetic stance is not always relevant and successful.
Furthermore, some psychologists argue that the nomothetic approach loses sight of the ‘whole person’, due to its fixation on quantitative data and statistical analysis. Furthermore, these psychologists also claim that the nomothetic approaches only provides a superficial understanding of human behaviour. For example, Milgram’s research found that 65% of participants obeyed an authority figure and inflicted a 450-volt electric shock because they were ordered to do so. However, the results fail to provide an explanation of why each person obeyed, and there may have been very different circumstances that led to the obedience found in each participant.
Finally Idiographic researchers would argue that Milgram’s research only allows us to make predictions on groups and not on individuals. While Milgram might predict that 65% of the population would obey an unjust order, he is unable to accurately predict what an individual would do. Allport (who first coined the term idiographic) argued that it is only by understanding an individual that we can make accurate predictions of individual behaviour.
