IDEOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Question 1

The impact of science

Answer 1

• Science has had an enormous impact on society in the last few centuries
• Faith and religion has been dimmed by the recent discoveries, while science may have helped us in protection against diseases and natural disasters it has also caused such problems as global warming and weapons of mass destruction.

Question 2

Open belief systems

Answer 2

• Popper (1959) science is seen as an‘open’ belief system through how it is open to scrutiny and criticism.
• Science is governed by the principle of falsification, scientists set out to try and falsify existing theories and try to disprove them.
• If they succeed, the theory can be discarded and the search for a better explanation can begin.
• Scientific knowledge is cumulative, it builds on the achievements of previous scientists to develop greater research.

Question 3

Merton (2007)

Answer 3

• argues that science can only thrive as a major social institution if it receives support from other institutions and values
• he also argues that science as an institution or organised social activity needs an ‘ethos’ or set of norms that makes scientists act in ways that serve the goal of increasing scientific knowledge.
• Four such norms: communism (scientific knowledge is shared throughout the community), universalism (the truth of scientific knowledge is judged by universal standards), disinterestedness (publishing your findings in order for others to check their claims) and organised scepticism (every idea is open to questioning and criticism).

Question 4

Closed belief systems

Answer 4

• Opposing science, religion is a closed belief system which cannot be challenged, those who do used to be punished.

Question 5

Horton

Answer 5

• distinguishes between an open and closed belief system, science is an open belief system however such topics as religion or magic are closed due to how they cannot be successfully overturned

Question 6

Witchcraft among the Azande

Answer 6

• The Azande believe that when misfortune befalls someone, they believe that it is due to witchcraft (they believe that coincidences aren’t real)
• The injured may make an accusation against the suspected witch, the benge will therefore perform a ritual to investigate.
• The Azande regard witchcraft as a psychic power coming from the intestines, this means that they can unintentionally cause harm. This allows the accused to proclaim their surprise and horror, to apologise and promise that there will be no further bewitching

Question 7

Polanyi evaluation

Answer 7

• argues that all belief systems have three devices to sustain themselves in the face of apparently contradictory evidence:
• Circularity (each idea in the system is explained in terms of another idea within the system)
• Subsidiary explanations (e.g. if the oracle fails, it may be explained due to the incorrect use of the benge)
• Denial of legitimacy (belief systems reject alternative worldviews by refusing to grant any legitimacy to their basic assumptions)

Question 8

Science as a closed system

Answer 8

• Others claim that science as a belief system can be seen as a closed system of belief. Polanyi argues that all belief systems reject fundamental challenges to their knowledge-claims (science is no different)

Question 9

Kuhn (1970)

Answer 9

argues that mature science such as geology, biology and physics is based on a shared set of assumptions that he calls a paradigm (lays down the broad outlines of the theory)

Question 10

paradigm

Answer 10

• Scientific education and training is the process of being socialised into the truth of the paradigm.
• Those who disregard the paradigms were likely to be punished, however during such events as scientific revolutions (where the truth of a paradigm is undermined by anomalies), only then do scientists become open to radically new ideas.

Question 11

The sociology of scientific knowledge

Answer 11

• Interpretivist sociologists argues that all knowledge (including scientific knowledge) is socially constructed, they believe that knowledge is created by social groups using the resources they have.
• Scientific ‘facts’ are the product of shared theories or paradigms that tell scientists what they should expect to see

Question 12

Woolgar (1992)

Answer 12

• argues that scientists are engaged constantly in trying to interpret the world, when confronted by evidence from their observations they have to extract its meaning. They also then have to persuade others to share their views.

Question 13

conflict theories to science

Answer 13

• Marxist and feminists see scientific knowledge as far from the truth, they regard it as serving the interests of dominant groups (patriarchy and ruling-class).
• For Marxists, and also men, they believe that the advances of science have been driven by the needs of capitalism and the patriarchy.

Question 14

Postmodernists view on science

Answer 14

• also reject the knowledge-claims of science to have ‘the truth’.
• Lyotard (1984) believes that science is one of a number of meta-narratives that falsely claims to possess the truth about how the world works as a means of progress to a better society whereas in reality science just is a way to dominate people.

Question 15

Gramsci (Marxism and ideology)

Answer 15

• proposes the ideas of the ruling class’ ideological domination of society, known as hegemony.
• The working class have a dual consciousness when they follow the ruling class ideology while using their own exploitation to create their individualistic ideas.
• Its therefore possible for the working class to develop class consciousness and overthrow the capitalists through revolution.

Question 16

eva marxist view on ideology

Answer 16

• However, some critics argue that its not the existence of a dominant ideology that keeps workers in line and prevents revolution. Abercrombie et al (2015) believes that it’s the economic factors such as unemployment

Question 17

The ideology of nationalism

Answer 17

• Nationalism is an important political ideology.
• Its main claims are that nations are distinctive communities with their own unique characteristics, every nation should be self-governing and national loyalty and identity should come before all.

Question 18

Anderson (2006)

Answer 18

however claims that nations are imagined communities of people that binds million of strangers and creates a sense of common purpose.

Question 19

marx view on nationalism

Answer 19

• Marx views nationalism as a form of false class consciousness that helps to prevent the overthrow of capitalism by dividing the international working class.
• This is due to how nationalism encourages workers to believe they have more in common with the capitalists of their country than the working-class of others.
• This has enabled the ruling-class to persuade the working-class of their country to fight wars for them.

Question 20

functionalist view on nationalism

Answer 20

• Functionalists see nationalism as a secular civil religion, it integrates individuals into larger social and political units by making them feel part of something greater than themselves.
• In the modern society, nationalism functions as a unity between all regardless of differences such as religion (multi-faith society) or class.
• Education plays an important role in creating social solidarity, involving collective rituals involving nationalist symbols such as the flag or national anthem.

Question 21

Gellner (2006)

Answer 21

• sees nationalism as false consciousness, its modern view sees pre-industrial societies that were held together not by nationalism, but by face-to-face relationships in small-scale communities with a fixed hierarch and ascribed statuses.
• Modern societies however create large-scale impersonal communities with complex divisions of labour where all citizens are relatively equal.
• Nationalism allows for communication within this society, by using the education system to impose a single standard language on every member and makes economic and social cooperation easier through the equality of its members.