ideologies Flashcards
1
Q
Who is the traditional conservative philosopher that argued humans exhibit a ‘restless desire’ for power?
A
Thomas Hobbes
Hobbes believed this desire leads to conflict and a state of nature characterized by a ‘war of every man against every man’.
2
Q
What does Hobbes assert is the condition of life in the state of nature?
A
Solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short
This reflects Hobbes’ negative view of human nature.
3
Q
What concept does Hobbes introduce regarding governance?
A
Absolute government at the consent of the people
This involves entering a social contract where individuals surrender natural rights for safety.
4
Q
What is Edmund Burke’s view on tradition?
A
Tradition is needed to promote social solidarity and continuity
Burke believed history roots people in society.
5
Q
According to Burke, how should change in society occur?
A
Gradually and cautiously
He emphasized that reforms should consider the past and be based on empiricism.
6
Q
What metaphor does Burke use to describe society?
A
Society resembles a living organism
This reflects his theory of organicism.
7
Q
What is Michael Oakeshott’s view on human nature?
A
Fallible but not terrible
Oakeshott believes humans are imperfect but not immoral.
8
Q
What does Oakeshott argue about political thinking and action?
A
It should be guided by pragmatism and practical experience
This ensures public acceptance and maintains social cohesion.
9
Q
What is Ayn Rand’s famous quote regarding the state?
A
The small state is the strong state
Rand advocates for minimal state intervention.
10
Q
What principle does Ayn Rand reject, and what does she support instead?
A
Rejects welfare/wealth redistribution; supports laissez-faire capitalism
She believes in the virtue of selfishness.
11
Q
What is Robert Nozick’s stance on taxation?
A
Tax, for the most part, is theft
Nozick argues that individuals own themselves and their labor.
12
Q
What type of state does Nozick advocate for?
A
A minimal state
He believes only limited powers are justified to protect individuals from harm.
13
Q
What does Hobbes mean by the term ‘social contract’?
A
An agreement where individuals surrender natural rights for security
This is essential for creating order in society.
14
Q
How does Burke view the French Revolution?
A
Very critical
He believed it discarded history and tradition, leading to negative consequences.
15
Q
According to Oakeshott, what should the role of the state be?
A
To prevent the bad rather than create the good
This emphasizes a pragmatic approach to governance.
16
Q
What does Ayn Rand say about personal altruism?
A
Condemned personal altruism
She believes it creates an artificial sense of obligation.
17
Q
What is the concept of ‘little platoons’ according to Burke?
A
Small, diverse, and largely autonomous groups within society
He advocated for their importance in governance.
18
Q
What is Oakeshott’s critique of rational attempts to understand society?
A
They inevitably distort/simplify the facts
This is due to human imperfection.
19
Q
What economic system does Rand support?
A
Pure laissez-faire capitalist economy
She argues it covers all aspects of human life.
20
Q
What does Nozick believe about self-ownership?
A
Individuals own themselves, their bodies, talents, and labor
This is a core principle of his philosophy.
21
Q
What is the traditional conservative view on human nature?
A
Skeptical and destructive
This leads to the need for control through governance.
22
Q
What does Oakeshott suggest about the best things in life?
A
They emerge from routine, apolitical activity
This highlights the importance of everyday life.
23
Q
What is the New Right’s view on the welfare state?
A
Creates a dependency culture
They argue it undermines individual freedom.
24
Q
What role does the state play in the New Right philosophy?
A
Should confine itself to law and security
Any intervention promoting ‘positive liberty’ is resisted.
25
What is the difference between traditional conservatives and New Right in terms of society?
Traditional conservatives support organic community; New Right supports atomistic individualism
## Footnote
This reflects a fundamental difference in their societal views.
26
What is the traditional conservative view on the economy?
Needs a strong state for enduring economic activity
## Footnote
They advocate for laissez-faire capitalism.
27
What does Burke's 'crooked timber of humanity' refer to?
The gap between aspiration and achievement in humans
## Footnote
This reflects his skeptical view of human nature.
28
What is the One Nation Conservative view on society?
Society is not capable of perfection but can achieve pleasure and improvement
## Footnote
This is a more optimistic perspective compared to traditional conservatives.
29
What does Nozick believe about the state and individual freedom?
Growth of government threatens individual freedom
## Footnote
He promotes a minarchist state focused on minimal intervention.
30
What is the state of nature according to the New Right?
A condition where individual liberty is impossible without order and security provided by the state.
31
What do Burke and the New Right agree on regarding state intervention?
Too much state intervention leads to radical change.
32
What is the New Right's stance on economic deregulation?
Supports tax reductions and limited government intervention.
33
How does the New Right view taxation according to Nozick?
Taxation of earnings is on a par with forced labour.
34
What distinguishes One Nation from the New Right?
One Nation involves state intervention due to human imperfection and aims for social cohesion.
35
What is the New Right's perspective on the welfare state?
Argues that it violates individual rights and creates dependency.
36
What is gradualism in the context of Traditional Conservatism?
Change should be evolutionary, respecting tradition and past decisions.
37
What is the harm principle proposed by John Stuart Mill?
Individuals should be free to act unless their actions harm others.
38
What does the difference principle by John Rawls state?
Inequality is acceptable if it benefits the poorest in society.
39
What is the 'veil of ignorance' in Rawls' theory?
A thought experiment to create laws without knowing one's social status.
40
What is the main idea of egotistical individualism in classical liberalism?
Society is a collection of self-interested individuals.
41
What do modern liberals believe about state intervention?
Support positive freedom and believe in state intervention for equality.
42
According to classical liberals, what role should the state play?
A minimalist role, enforcing contracts and maintaining social order.
43
What is laissez-faire capitalism?
An economic system with no state involvement in the economy.
44
What did Karl Marx mean by 'dictatorship of the proletariat'?
A necessary measure to protect against counter-revolution after a revolution.
45
What is Rosa Luxemburg's view on capitalism?
Fraternity and altruism still flourish in working-class communities despite capitalism.
46
What does Beatrice Webb advocate for in socialism?
Gradual change through an expanded state rather than revolution.
47
What is Anthony Crosland's perspective on human nature?
Humans have a powerful sense of fairness and objection to inequality.
48
What does Anthony Giddens mean by 'hand-up, not hand-out'?
Welfare should encourage active participation rather than passive dependence.
49
Define mercantile capitalism.
Trade occurs between nations or regions.
50
What are joint stock companies?
Companies made of multiple agents, enabling larger operations.
51
What characterizes industrial capitalism?
Accumulation of capital to enhance production efficiency.
52
What does the term 'enclosure' refer to?
Landlords reclaiming and privatizing fields, impacting tenant farmers.
53
What is utopian socialism?
The ideal society that would emerge through reforming capitalism.
54
What is ism in the context of trade?
Trade occurs.
55
What are Joint Stock Companies?
Companies made of multiple agents, allowing larger operations and financing bigger trade.
56
Define Industrial Capitalism.
Accumulation of large amounts of capital to make production more efficient; factory production.
57
What is Enclosure?
Landlords reclaiming and privatizing fields held by multiple tenants, increasing productivity but impoverishing tenant farmers.
58
What does Consumption refer to?
The purchase of goods and services from households and firms, making us consumers.
59
What is Utopian Socialism?
The ideal society that would occur through the reform of the Capitalist system.
60
Define Revolutionary Socialism.
Belief that socialism could only be achieved through the violent revolution of the working classes.
61
What is Bourgeois oppression?
The oppression of the Proletariat (working class) by the Bourgeois (capitalist class) within a capitalist system.
62
What does Class struggle refer to?
Friction between the classes, which Marx believes will be exposed.
63
What is Collectivism?
The belief that group outcomes will be more beneficial than individualistic approaches.
64
Define Common Humanity.
The idea that we share certain similar characteristics.
65
What is Absolute Equality according to Marx?
A state of perfect harmony after the Revolution.
66
What is Equality of outcome?
The belief that government should intervene to level the playing field.
67
What does Equality of opportunity mean?
The idea that everyone starts from the same point and success depends on individual effort.
68
What are the two main classes in Social Class theory?
The Bourgeois and the Proletariat.
69
What is Worker’s control?
Workers control of the economy, including trade unions and nationalization.
70
List the 5 core principles of socialism.
* Equality
* Common humanity
* Social class
* Collectivism
* Worker’s control
71
Why do socialists endorse collectivism?
It prioritizes group interests over individual self-interest, encourages social unity, and utilizes societal capabilities efficiently.
72
What does the socialist view of human nature argue?
Humans are social beings who prefer group work and are shaped by social conditions.
73
What are common forms of socialist collectivism?
* Subsidised housing
* Trade unions
* NHS
* State control of key industries
* State-provided education
74
Why do socialists attach less importance to collectivism in the 21st Century?
Perceived dependency culture and sluggish economic sector after the Cold War.
75
What is the positive view of human nature according to socialists?
Humans are inclined towards cooperation and rationality, preferring to work together.
76
Why do socialists see competition as wasteful?
It encourages self-centeredness and neglect of common humanity.
77
List three justifications for social equality.
* Ensures fairness
* Reinforces collectivism
* Satisfies basic human needs
78
Why do socialists endorse common ownership?
Wealth should be owned collectively as it arises from communal effort, and private property fosters conflict.
79
What criticisms do opponents of socialism make regarding social equality?
* It is unjust
* Lowers ambition
* Restricts individual liberties
* Stifles diversity
80
Why is social class important to socialists?
It explains societal divides and drives political development.
81
What do Marxists predict will happen to social classes?
Inevitability of conflict leading to a proletarian revolution and the disappearance of classes.
82
What is deindustrialisation?
The decline of traditional industries, impacting working-class solidarity and socialist politics.
83
What is workers control?
Complete or partial ownership of an economic enterprise by the workers.
84
What criticisms are made of workers control?
It is seen as utopian, lacking acknowledgment of the need for risk-takers and entrepreneurs.
85
Why was revolutionary socialism initially popular?
Industrialisation brought poverty and exploitation, expected to radicalize the working class.
86
List three reasons why revolutionary socialists reject democratic methods.
* The state is a tool of bourgeois oppression
* The existing state must be replaced
* Humanizing capitalism undermines socialism
87
What role did revolutionary socialism play in decolonisation?
Provided theoretical support and practical help from socialist countries.
88
What is social democracy's aim for capitalism?
To reconcile free market capitalism with state intervention.
89
How do social democrats justify their aim?
Through peaceful consensus and acknowledging the inequalities produced by capitalism.
90
How does Bernstein critique Marx?
He argues capitalism can be reformed peacefully through electoral politics.
91
List three characteristics of 20th Century Social Democracy.
* Support for a mixed economy
* Keynesianism for regulating the economy
* Social justice from cradle to grave
92
How did Anthony Crosland defend social democracy?
He claimed a new skilled governing class runs industries in their interests.
93
What contradiction became apparent within social democracy after 1945?
Social democrats accepted capitalism could be reformed but only through taxing the profits of the wealthy.
94
How was social democracy weakened from the 1970s onwards?
Economic downturns and the failure of the Soviet Union exposed flaws and reduced electoral support.
95
What is the connection between the birth of Third Way socialism and social democracy?
It arose from Labour's electoral defeats and public discontent with social democracy.
96
List five key features of Third Way thinking.
* Primacy of the market
* Value of community
* Consensus-based social model
* Social inclusion
* Competition or market state
97
What are the three elements of Marxism according to Marx and Engels?
* Historical materialism
* Dialectical change
* Class consciousness
98
What is the role of the state in Marx's theory?
A tool of capitalist oppression that must wither away for true communism.
99
What does Marx say about capitalism and human potential?
Capitalism prevents individuals from reaching true potential due to competition.
100
What is the importance of class in Marxist theory?
Class is central to the struggle between exploiters and exploited and drives change.
101
What does Luxemburg argue about evolutionary socialism?
It is impossible as capitalism is based on economic exploitation.
102
How does Luxemburg view the role of the proletariat?
Their struggle creates the class-consciousness needed to overthrow capitalism.
103
What creates the class-consciousness needed to overthrow the capitalist state?
Struggle by the proletariat
## Footnote
This struggle leads to awareness among workers about their shared interests and conditions.
104
What is the view on absolute equality in the context of socialism?
Absolute equality
## Footnote
This concept emphasizes equal rights and opportunities for all individuals.
105
Why is evolutionary socialism considered impossible according to the text?
Capitalism is based on economic exploitation
## Footnote
Evolutionary socialism would leave the capitalist system intact.
106
What happens to capitalist markets as surplus value generates?
They could not absorb all the surplus value generated and would eventually run out of markets to exploit
## Footnote
This indicates a fundamental flaw in capitalist economics.
107
What is the essential struggle for the proletariat in creating class-consciousness?
Struggle for reform and democracy
## Footnote
This struggle is crucial for overthrowing capitalist society.
108
What is Webb's belief regarding the establishment of socialism?
Inevitability of gradualness through democratic reforms
## Footnote
She believed socialism could be achieved peacefully.
109
What does Webb reject in her political ideology?
The Marxist idea of class struggle
## Footnote
She endorsed a more gradual approach to socialism.
110
What is Webb's stance on the role of the working class?
They should not be empowered as it will corrupt the state
## Footnote
She believed skilled individuals should govern.
111
What does Crosland argue about modern capitalism?
It lacks inherent contradictions and does not resemble traditional capitalism
## Footnote
This reflects a significant shift in capitalism's structure.
112
What are Crosland's justifications for equality?
* Economic efficiency
* Creation of a more communitarian society
* Injustice of rewarding talents and abilities
* Need for social justice
## Footnote
These points emphasize the need for a more equitable society.
113
What is Giddens' contribution to social democracy?
Founder of 'third way', a political approach rejecting state intervention
## Footnote
This approach emphasizes free markets and individual responsibility.
114
What does Giddens believe about state intervention?
It is ineffective and inefficient
## Footnote
He argues for a minimal state focused on social investment.
115
What is the definition of a nation?
Belonging to a larger group sharing characteristics like language, culture, values, and traditions
## Footnote
This definition highlights the collective identity of people.
116
What does self-determination mean in the context of nationalism?
Nations being able to decide how and by whom they are governed
## Footnote
This principle emphasizes autonomy and governance rights.
117
What is cultural nationalism?
National identity defined by shared cultural traditions
## Footnote
This form of nationalism emphasizes intangible cultural elements.
118
What is the concept of civic nationalism?
Nation can change easily based on individual choices
## Footnote
It focuses on inclusivity and individual rights.
119
Define racialism.
The idea that all members of each race possess racial characteristics contributing to their nationality
## Footnote
This concept can lead to divisive ideologies.
120
What is the difference between race and ethnicity?
* Race: Biological makeup and physical characteristics
* Ethnicity: Belonging to a social group with a common culture
## Footnote
Understanding these terms is crucial for discussions on identity.
121
What does socialist internationalism advocate?
Cooperation, community, and humanity viewed through a class-based lens
## Footnote
It emphasizes solidarity among working-class individuals globally.
122
What is the role of militarism in nationalism?
Belief in a strong army for a strong national identity
## Footnote
Militarism can reinforce national pride and security.
123
What is internationalism?
Extending the idea of cooperation, community and humanity.
124
What perspective do socialist nationalists advocate for?
Looking at the world through a class-based lens, not a nation-based lens.
125
What is militarism?
The belief that a strong large army is needed for strong national identity.
126
What is the ideal form of government for liberal nationalists?
The nation state.
127
Define civic nationalism.
A form of nationalism based on the adoption of shared values amongst citizens.
128
Why is civic nationalism considered progressive?
It is associated with tolerance, democracy, and individual rights.
129
How do liberal nationalists view colonialism?
They oppose it as it does not lead to a world of independent nation states.
130
What role does interdependence play in liberal nationalism?
Independent nation states can work together for mutual benefit.
131
How does rationalism relate to the EU in liberal nationalism?
The EU was created to foster harmony among Western European states.
132
Why do liberal nationalists support supra nationalism?
To police the international world and allow nations self-determination.
133
What three themes do conservative nationalists use to create a common bond?
* Shared tradition
* History
* Culture
134
How is conservative nationalism cultural in tone?
It reflects national identity defined by shared cultural traditions.
135
What does one nation conservatism emphasize?
Patriotism as a unifying force in society.
136
How do conservative nationalists view multiculturalism?
They stand against it, requiring commitment to the host nation's customs and values.
137
What does the cricket test incident illustrate about conservative nationalism?
It shows the belief that one cannot be part of a nation without subscribing wholly to its culture.
138
What are the two phases of colonial nationalism?
* Anti-colonial nationalism
* Post-colonial nationalism
139
What is the relationship between post-colonial nationalism and socialism?
It relates to Lenin’s analysis of imperialism as capitalist oppression.
140
What key ideas did Marcus Garvey support within colonial nationalism?
* Black pride
* Pan-Africanism
* Separatism
141
What is chauvinism in the context of nationalism?
The belief that there is a hierarchy to life, with some nations being superior.
142
Give three examples of expansionist nationalist states since 1945.
* Russia
* Iraq
* Serbia in the 1990s
143
Why is expansionist nationalism considered irrational and militaristic?
It involves intense patriotism that overwhelms individual identity.
144
What is Rousseau's view on government legitimacy?
Governments must listen to the collective will of the people.
145
What does Rousseau argue about civic nationalism?
The state can only be legitimate when based on active citizen participation.
146
What concept did Herder introduce related to national culture?
Volksgeist, which emphasizes the unique spirit of a nation.
147
What is Mazzini's perspective on nationhood?
Humans can only express themselves via their nation.
148
What is integral nationalism according to Maurras?
A form of nationalism that emphasizes anti-individualism and aggressive expansionism.
149
What did Marcus Garvey advocate for in terms of identity?
He encouraged African pride and unity among all Africans.
150
What is the central belief of Pan-Africanism according to Garvey?
To unite all Africans under one sovereign territory.
151
What is the significance of the term 'Dio e Popolo' for Mazzini?
It reflects his belief in a divine mission for the nation.
152
What is the belief of Liberal Nationalists regarding government?
Governments should be based on the indivisible, collective will of the 'community'.
## Footnote
This concept is linked to the idea of national self-determination.
153
What does Rousseau argue about individuals and the state?
Individuals are separate from the state and are not bound to it.
154
What was Garvey's central belief in his Pan-African philosophy?
African people in every part of the world are one people and must put aside cultural and ethnic differences.
155
What was Garvey's ultimate dream?
The creation of a United States of Africa.
156
What does Mazzini's motto 'Dio e Popolo' signify?
God and People, indicating that God divided humanity into nations.
157
How does Mazzini view the relationship between patriotism and duty?
He regards patriotism as a duty and love for the Fatherland as a divine mission.
158
What is the concept of 'thought and action' according to Mazzini?
Every thought must be followed by action.
159
What does Maurras reject in his nationalist ideology?
Individualism, as it leads to self-interest over national interest.
160
What form of state does integral nationalism usually take?
Totalitarian, where the state dominates all aspects of society.
161
What is the view of Liberal Nationalists on international cooperation?
Countries should rely on each other and support supra-national organizations.
162
What economic strategy does Garvey propose for black people?
An independent black economy.
163
What is the Conservative Nationalists' stance on supra-national organizations?
They oppose them, valuing cultural sovereignty.
164
What is the economic belief of Expansionist Nationalists regarding independence?
Nation states should be independent and prioritize their sovereignty.
165
What is civic nationalism?
A form of nationalism based on the active participation of citizens and a shared vision of equal citizens.
166
Define liberal internationalism.
The idea that sovereign nations should cooperate to create interdependency and avoid international conflict.
167
What is ethnicity?
The sense of belonging to a social group that shares a common culture, religion, or language.
168
What does the term 'rational' refer to in the context of nationalism?
The idea that humans are capable of reasoned thought and logical decisions.
169
What are progressive ideas?
Ideas that move towards improving society.
170
What are regressive ideas?
Ideas that seek to revert society to a former or less advanced state.
171
What is inclusive nationalism?
A form of nationalism that believes joining a nation is straightforward and not based on shared experiences.
172
What is exclusive nationalism?
A form of nationalism that believes membership takes time and is based on shared history and language.
173
Define chauvinistic nationalism.
A form of nationalism that believes its nation is superior to others and sees them as a threat.
174
What does imperialism/colonialism refer to?
The extension of control by one country over another by settlement or economic domination.
175
What is Volksgeist?
The ‘spirit’ of a nation, representing the unique identity of a people based on culture.
176
What characterizes integral nationalism?
An intense form of patriotism where the individual is absorbed into the nation.
177
What is black nationalism?
A reaction to white oppression originating in the mid-20th century.
