Identity and Personality Flashcards
1
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Self-Concept and Identity
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- Self-Concept: Awareness of one’s self as distinct from others and personal description of one’s own self; appraisal of who we used to be and who we will become.
- Self-Schema: The way we define ourselves; self-given label that carries a set of qualities. Athlete schema carries with it qualities of youth and physical fitness.
- Identity: The individual components of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong; only one self-concept, but multiple identities depending on social situation. Religious affiliation, sexual orientation, personal relationships, and membership in social groups are a few identities that sum to create self-concept.
2
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Types of Identity
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• Gender Identity: Person‘s appraisal of him or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity. Androgyny is the state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine, while those who achieve low scores on both scales are referred to as Undifferentiated. Gender Theory posits that key components of gender identity are transmitted through cultural and societal means.
• Ethnic Identity: The part of one’s identity associated with membership in a particular racial or ethnic group; members often share common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language.
• National Identity: Based on political borders and is the result or shared history, media, cuisine, and national symbols; not necessarily tied to one’s ethnicity or even legal citizenship.
Hierarchy of Salience: Organization of identities such that we let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment. The more salient the identity, The more we conform to the role expectations of the identities.
3
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Self-Evaluation
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- Self-Discrepancy Theory: Each person has three selves and that perceived differences between these selves lead to negative feelings. Actual Self (the way we see ourselves as we currently are), Ideal Self (the person we would like to be), and Ought Self (the representation of the way others think we should be). Self-Esteem (self-worth) increases the closer these three selves are to one another.
- Self-Efficacy: Belief in one’s own ability to succeed. Overconfidence occurs when self efficacy is too high, leading to frustration, humiliation, or even personal injury. Learned Helplessness occurs when self-efficacy is too low, developing from a perceived lack of control over the outcome of a situation.
- Locus of Control: The way we characterize influences in our lives. People with an Internal Locus of Control view themselves as controlling their own fates, whereas people with an External Locus of Control feel that the events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences.
4
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Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
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- Libido: Sex drive present at birth. Freud believed libidinal energy and the drive to reduce libidinal tension were the underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological processes.
- Fixation occurs when a child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development, and Neurosis (functional mental disorder) develops based on that particular stage.
- (1) Oral Stage: Age 0-1. Libidinal energy is centered on the mouth (biting and sucking). Oral fixation leads to excessive dependency in adulthood.
- (2) Anal Stage: Age 1-3. Libidinal energy is centered on the anus (elimination and retention of wastes). Anal fixation leads to excessive orderliness (anal-retentiveness) or sloppiness in adulthood.
- (3) Phallic Stage: Age 3-5. Centers on resolution of Oedipal Conflict (male children fearing castration) or Electra Conflict (female children having penis envy). Libidinal energy is sublimated (expressed through collecting objects or focusing on schoolwork).
- (4) Latency Stage: Starts when libido has been sublimated and lasts until puberty.
- (5) Genital Stage: Begins in puberty and lasts through adulthood. If prior development has proceeded correctly, person enters healthy heterosexual relationship. Unresolved sexual traumas of childhood result in homosexuality, asexuality, and fetishism.
5
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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
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- Personality development is driven by successful resolution of a series of social and emotional conflicts. These conflicts arise because an individual lacks some critical social or emotional skill and lead to either positive or negative resolution. An individual who fails to obtain positive resolution at one stage has failed to develop but can still advance to next stage and even learn the failed skill later in life.
- (1) Trust vs Mistrust: Age 0-1. Conflict is whether or not to trust caregivers to reliably provide support. If reliable care is provided, newborn will learn trust.
- (2) Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt: Age 1-3. Focus is on self and surroundings. Positive resolution leads to feeling able to exert control over the world and to exercise choice and self-restraint. Negative resolution occurs as a result of being overly controlled and criticized and leads to a sense of doubt and a persistent external locus of control.
- (3) Initiative vs Guilt: Age 3-6. Focus is on ability. Positive resolution leads to a sense of purpose, the ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment. Negative resolution occurs due to guilt and leads to fear of punishment, resulting in child either restricting himself or overcompensating by showing off.
- (4) Industry vs Inferiority: Age 6-12. Focus is on confidence and competence. Positive resolution leads to preadolescent feeling competent and feeling like he is able to exercise his abilities and intelligence. Negative resolution leads to a sense of inadequacy, inability to act in a competent manner, and low self-esteem.
- (5) Identity vs Role Confusion: Age 12-20. Focus is on who you are as a person and purpose in society. Positive resolution leads to fidelity, the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties. Negative resolution leads to confusion about one’s identity and an amorphous personality that shifts from day to day.
- (6) Intimacy vs Isolation: Age 20-40. Focus is on companionship. Positive resolution leads to ability to have intimate relationships with others and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to one’s own goals. Negative resolution leads to an avoidance of commitment, alienation, and distancing of oneself from others and one’s ideals, resulting in withdrawal and capability to develop only superficial relationships.
- (7) Generativity vs Stagnation: Age 40-65. Focus is on advancing present and future society. Positive resolution results in an individual capable of being a productive, caring, and contributing member of society. Negative resolution results in sense of stagnation and individual may become self-indulgent, bored, and self-centered.
- (8) Integrity vs Despair: Age 65+. Focus is on reflection. Positive resolution leads to wisdom and assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and acceptance of the fact that one’s life has been worthwhile along with a readiness to face death. Negative resolution leads to feelings of bitterness about one’s life, a feeling that life has been worthless, and fear over one’s own impending death.
6
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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning
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- Focuses on the development of moral thinking; the ways in which we resolve moral dilemmas and perceive the notion of right and wrong.
- Preconventional Morality: Typical of preadolescent thinking and emphasizes consequences of moral choice. (1) Obedience is about avoiding punishment. (2) Self-Interest is about gaining rewards.
- Conventional Morality: Typical of early adolescence and emphasizes understanding and accepting social rules. (3) Conformity is about seeking approval of others. (4) Law and Order is about maintaining social order in highest regard.
- Postconventional Morality: Typical of adulthood (if at all) and emphasizes social mores. (5) Social Contract is about maintaining individual rights. (6) Universal Human Ethics is about making decisions in consideration of abstract principles.
7
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Vygotsky’s Theory of Cultural and Biosocial Development
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- The engine driving cognitive development is a child’s internalization of various aspects of culture: interpersonal rules, symbols, language, etc.
- Zone of Proximal Development: The help of a more knowledgeable other is required to successfully gain skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed but are in the process of development. Child struggles to ride bike on her own, but successfully learns with guidance of parent.
8
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Influence of Others on Identity
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- Role-Taking: Experimenting with other identities by taking on the roles of others (by playing house or school).
- Theory of Mind: Ability to sense how another’s mind works (understanding how a friend is interpreting a story while you tell it).
- Looking-Glass Self: The understanding of how others see us by perceiving a reflection of ourselves based on the words and actions of others.
- Reference Group: The group that we use as a standard to evaluate ourselves.
- Once we develop a theory of mine, we become aware of judgments from the outside world and react to these judgements by maintaining, modifying, downplaying, or accentuating different aspects of our personality and identity. The self is developed through interpersonal reactions.
9
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Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality
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- Freud’s Structural Model: Involves three major entities.
- Id (basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce) functions according to Pleasure Principle (to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension). Primary Process works to resolve tension created by pleasure principle via Wish Fulfillment (mental imagery, such as daydreaming or fantasy, that fulfills need for satisfaction).
- Ego (organizer of the mind that moderates id) functions according to Reality Principle (to postpone pleasure principle until satisfaction can actually be obtained). Secondary Process guides the activity of the id by taking into account objective reality.
- Superego (personality’s perfectionist) judges actions and responds with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures. Desires of the superego are refined and focused on the ideal self. Can be divided into the Conscience (collection of the improper actions for which a child is punished) and the Ego-Ideal (collection of the proper actions for which a child is rewarded).
- Access to id, ego, and superego fall into three categories: thoughts to which we have current access (Conscious), thoughts that we aren’t currently aware of but can be recalled when needed (Preconscious), and thoughts that have been repressed (Unconscious).
• Freud’s Dynamic Theory of Personality: Behaviors are influenced by instincts (innate psychological representation of biological need). Life Instincts (Eros) promote survival through thirst, hunger, and sexual needs. Death Instincts (Thanatos) represent unconscious wish for death and destruction.
Freud’s Defense Mechanisms: The ego’s recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego. All defense mechanisms operate unconsciously and serve to deny, falsify, or distort reality.
• Repression: Unconscious forgetting of undesired thoughts and urges that have been forced to the unconscious by the ego (occurs due to trauma).
• Suppression: Deliberate, conscious form of forgetting (I’m not gonna think about that right now).
• Regression: Reversion to an earlier developmental state (older child may start sucking his thumb when faced with stress).
• Reaction Formation: Undesired urges are unconsciously converted into their exact opposite (man pining over female celebrity outwardly expresses hatred for her as a way of reducing the stress caused by his unrequited feelings).
• Projection: Undesired feelings are attributed to others; basis of Rorschach inkblot test (“I hate my parents” turns into “my parents hate me”).
• Rationalization: Justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society (highway drag racer tells himself that he’s in complete control and that there are already plenty of dangerous drivers on the road).
• Displacement: Transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another (person angry at boss holds their tongue at work but snaps at spouse at home).
• Sublimation: Transformation of unacceptable urges into social acceptable behaviors (pent-up sexual urges may be sublimated into artistic creativity).
10
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Jung’s Psychoanalytic Theories of Personality
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- Libido is thought of as psychic energy in general (not just psychic energy rooted in sexuality).
- Conscious Mind is Ego, and Unconscious Mind is divided into the Personal Unconscious (similar to Freud’s unconscious) and the Collective Unconscious (powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences of our early ancestors). The Self is the point of intersection between conscious mind, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious and strives for unity
- Archetypes: Archaic and universal patterns, images, and innate human knowledge passed down from ancestors and are derived from Collective Unconscious. Important Jungian Archetypes are: Persona (worn like mask in public, aspect of our personality that we present to the world), Anima (feminine behaviors in males, explains emotional behaviors), Animus (masculine behaviors in females, explains power-seeking behaviors), and Shadow (unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions experienced in unconscious mind).
- Word Association Testing: Developed by Jung to assess how unconscious elements may be influencing the conscious mind and thus the self; say the first word that comes to mind.
- Jung’s Dichotomies of Personality: Consist of three dichotomy; both sides of each dichotomy are present of some degree in most individuals, but one tends to dominate.
- Extraversion vs Introversion: Orientation toward external world vs Orientation toward inner, personal world.
- Sensing vs Intuiting: Obtaining objective information about the world vs Working with information abstractly.
- Thinking vs Feeling: Using logic and reason vs Using a value system or personal beliefs.
- These dichotomies laid groundwork for Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (classic personality test).
11
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Adler’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality
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- Striving for superiority drives the personality; this striving enhances personality when it is oriented toward benefiting society, but yields disorder when it is selfish.
- Inferiority Complex: An individual’s sense of incompleteness, imperfection, and inferiority, both physically and socially.
- Creative Self: Force by which each individual shapes his uniqueness and establishes personality.
- Style of Life: Manifestation of creative self and describes person’s unique way of achieving superiority. Family environment is crucial in molding one’s style of life.
- Fictional Finalism: Individual is motivated more by expectations of the future than by past experiences. Goals are based on subjective/fictional estimate of life’s values rather than objective data from the past. (Life would be perfect if only ___).
12
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Horney’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality
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- Neurosis results from basic anxiety caused by interpersonal relationships.
- Basic Anxiety: Vulnerability and helplessness caused by inadequate parenting.
- Basic Hostility: Anger caused by neglect and rejection.
- Individuals with neurotic personalities are governed by one of ten Neurotic Needs.
- To overcome basic anxiety or basic hostility and attain a degree of security, child uses three strategies in his relationships with others: moving toward people to obtain the goodwill of people who provide security (seen as clingy or needy), moving away or withdrawing from people (seen as unsocial or cold), and moving against people, or fighting them to obtain the upper hand (seen as difficult or hostile). Healthy people have these needs to some degree, but these needs only become problematic if they are disproportionate in intensity.
13
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Summary of Psychoanalytic (Psychodynamic) Theories of Personality
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• All assume that unconscious internal states motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality.
- Freud: Personality governed by inborn instincts.
- Jung: Personality governed by inborn archetypes.
- Adler: Personality governed by striving for superiority.
- Horney: Personality governed by neurotic needs.
14
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Humanistic (Phenomenological) Perspectives of Personality
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• Describes ways in which healthy people strive toward self-realization and self-actualization through free will; often associated with Gestalt Therapy (holistic view of self, seeing each individual as a complete person).
- Lewin’s Force Field Theory: Field (one’s current state of mind) is the sum of all forces (influences that either assist in attainment of goals or block the path to them) on individual at that time.
- Maslow’s Peak Experiences: Self-actualized people have Peak Experiences, which are profound and deeply moving experiences that have important and lasting effects on individual.
- Kelly’s Personal Contract Psychology: Individuals construct schemes of anticipation of what others will do based on their knowledge, perception, and relationships with others; an anxious person is one who is having difficulty constructing, understanding, and predicting the variables in the environment.
- Rogers’ Person-Centered Therapy: Person-centered therapy helps the client reconcile differences between his real and ideal self (to reduce stress-inducing incongruence) via technique of Unconditional Positive Regard (accepting client completely and expressing empathy).
15
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Type and Trait Perspectives of Personality
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- Type Theories attempt to create a taxonomy of personality types.
- Sheldon’s Somatotypes: Personality types based on body type; short stocky people were jolly, tall people were high strung and aloof, and people in between were strong and well-adjusted.
- Type A and Type B Personalities: Type A personalities are competitive and compulsive. Type B personalities are laid-back and relaxed.
- Trait Theories describe individual personality as the sum of a person’s characteristic behaviors.
- Eysenck’s PEN Model: Psychoticism (Measure of non-conformity or social deviance), Extraversion (Measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation), Neuroticism (Measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations). Negative Affect related to neuroticism and describes how a person thinks of themselves or experiences negative emotions; high negative affect corresponds with neuroticism and anxiety.
- The Big Five Model: Openness (willingness to experience new things and engage with world), Conscientiousness (impulse control vs spontaneity), Extraversion, Agreeableness (degree to which a person is concerned about maintaining peace and harmony in interaction with others), and Neuroticism.
- Allport’s Dispositions: Cardinal Traits (traits around which a person organizes his or her life), Central Traits (easily conferrable yet major characteristics of personality, such as honesty or charisma), Secondary Traits (more limited personal characteristics, such as those that only appear in close groups or specific social situations). Major part of Allport’s theory is Functional Autonomy (behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created the behavior); hunter initially hunts for food to eat, but continues hunting purely for enjoyment.
- McClelland’s Need for Achievement (N-Ach): People rated high in N-Ach tend to be concerned with achievement, have pride in their accomplishments, and set realistic goals; tend to avoid high risks (to avoid failing) and low risks (because easy task for not generate a sense of achievement).
