Hydrocephalus Flashcards
What’s hydrocephalus?
Hydrocephalus refers to an abnormal accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the cranial cavity, leading to increased water content in the brain. In this context, “water” and CSF are considered synonymous. CSF is a clear, colorless fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord, providing a cushion, carrying nutrients, and removing waste products.
Where’s CSF produced?
It is mainly produced by the choroid plexus in the brain’s lateral, third, and fourth ventricles.
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Sources of CSF Production:
- The majority of CSF is produced by the choroid plexus located in the ventricles of the brain.
- A smaller amount is produced by the interstitial space (fluid between cells) and the ependymal lining of the ventricles.
- In the spinal cord, some CSF is produced by the dura mater around the nerve roots.
What’s the rate of production of in newborn and adult
How’s it absorbed?
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Volume of CSF:
- In infants, the total CSF volume is approximately 50 mL.
- In adults, it ranges from 100 to 150 mL, with half in the cranial compartment (inside the skull) and half in the spinal compartment (along the spinal cord).
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CSF Production Rates:
- Newborns produce about 25 mL/day.
- Adults produce between 432 to 504 mL/day (equivalent to 0.3-0.35 mL per minute).
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CSF Absorption:
- CSF is absorbed into the bloodstream via structures called arachnoid villi or granulations, which are located in the dural venous sinuses (large veins within the dura mater of the brain).
What are the causes of hydrocephalus
Causes of Hydrocephalus
The development of hydrocephalus occurs when there is a disruption in the balance between the production and absorption of CSF. This imbalance can be due to:
1. Overproduction of CSF: Although rare, excessive CSF production can contribute to hydrocephalus.
2. Poor Reabsorption: This happens when the CSF is not effectively absorbed back into the bloodstream.
3. Obstruction of CSF Circulation: When the flow of CSF is blocked, it cannot circulate normally, leading to a buildup within the brain’s ventricles, causing them to expand.
The progressive dilation of the ventricles due to accumulating CSF leads to ventriculomegaly, which can increase the intracranial pressure (ICP).
What’s the normal ICP for:
Newborn
Adult
Intracranial Pressure (ICP) in Hydrocephalus
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Normal ICP Levels:
- In newborns, the normal ICP ranges from 9-12 cm H₂O.
- In adults, normal ICP is less than 18-20 cm H₂O, or equivalently 5-15 mmHg (using the conversion factor 1 cm H₂O = 0.74 mmHg).
When there is an excess accumulation of CSF, the ICP rises, which can compress the brain tissue and cause symptoms like headaches, vomiting, blurred vision, and, in severe cases, altered consciousness.
What’s the Monro-Kellie Doctrine/Principle & what are the exception?
The Monro-Kellie doctrine helps explain the principles of intracranial dynamics:
- It states that the skull is a rigid, non-expandable container, and the sum of its contents (brain tissue, blood, and CSF) is constant.
- Therefore, an increase in the volume of one component (e.g., CSF) must be compensated for by a decrease in another component (e.g., blood volume) to maintain a constant ICP.
- If compensation fails or the CSF volume increase is too significant, ICP will rise, potentially leading to brain damage.
Exceptions in Young Children
The Monro-Kellie doctrine does not fully apply to children under 2-3 years old because their fontanelles (soft spots on the skull) are still open, allowing for some expansion of the skull to accommodate increased intracranial volume. In these cases, head circumference may increase as a sign of hydrocephalus.
What are the different classification methods for hydrocephalus
Types of Hydrocephalus
Hydrocephalus is classified in several ways based on its characteristics, underlying causes, or pathophysiology. Over time, different classifications have been proposed:
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Gower’s Classification (1888): He divided hydrocephalus into:
- Acute or Chronic: Depending on the onset and duration.
- Primary or Secondary: Based on whether the cause is intrinsic (primary) or due to another condition (secondary).
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Dandy’s Classification (1913):
- Communicating Hydrocephalus: The flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is not blocked within the ventricles, but CSF absorption in the subarachnoid space is impaired.
- Non-Communicating or Obstructive Hydrocephalus: There is a blockage within the ventricular system, preventing CSF from flowing out into the subarachnoid space.
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Russell’s Classification: Similar to Dandy’s, categorized into:
- Obstructive (Non-Communicating) Hydrocephalus
- Non-Obstructive (Communicating) Hydrocephalus
- Ratke’s Multicompartmental Model (1999-2000): Suggests a complex regulation of CSF within different compartments of the ventricular system.
- Oi’s Minor Pathway Hydrocephalus (2006): Proposed this type in immature brains, indicating that minor pathways of CSF flow are more involved in developing brains.
What are the main types of hydrocephalus
Main Types of Hydrocephalus
The classification based on clinical presentation includes:
- Hydrocephalus with Increased Intracranial Pressure (ICP): Common in infants and children, characterized by elevated pressure inside the skull.
- Hydrocephalus with Low or Normal Intracranial Pressure: Occurs in adults, where the pressure may be normal or reduced (hypo- or normotensive hydrocephalus).
Explain Hydrocephalus with Increased Intracranial Pressure.
This type typically occurs in infants and children due to either increased CSF production or obstruction in CSF circulation, leading to elevated intracranial pressure.
Aetiology (Causes)
1. Increased Formation of CSF:
- Choroid Plexus Papilloma: A benign tumor of the choroid plexus can produce excessive CSF, surpassing the absorption capacity.
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Obstruction in the Circulation of CSF:
- The obstruction may occur within the ventricular system (non-communicating hydrocephalus) or within the subarachnoid space (communicating hydrocephalus):
- Non-Communicating Hydrocephalus: There is no communication between the ventricles and the subarachnoid space due to a blockage.
- Communicating Hydrocephalus: There is communication between the ventricles and subarachnoid space, but the flow is obstructed somewhere before the CSF reaches the arachnoid villi (where CSF is reabsorbed).
- The obstruction may occur within the ventricular system (non-communicating hydrocephalus) or within the subarachnoid space (communicating hydrocephalus):
What are the possible Causes of Obstruction in the Ventricular System( in non communicating hydrocephalus)
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Congenital Causes:
- Aqueductal Stenosis: Narrowing of the cerebral aqueduct, often associated with myelomeningocele (a type of spinal cord defect).
- Dandy-Walker Syndrome: Characterized by the absence or blockage of openings in the fourth ventricle, leading to CSF buildup.
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Acquired Causes:
- Infections: Conditions like ventriculitis or ependymitis may cause scarring (gliosis) that obstructs CSF pathways.
- Hemorrhage: Bleeding within or around the brain, such as subarachnoid hemorrhage, can cause obstruction due to blood clot formation.
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Neoplasms (Tumors):
- Parasagittal Meningioma: Located near the confluence of the venous sinuses in the brain, can impair CSF reabsorption.
- Intrathoracic Tumor Affecting the Superior Vena Cava: Can increase venous pressure in the brain’s venous sinuses, obstructing CSF absorption.
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Other Causes:
- Cerebellar or Brainstem Tumors: Often occur in older children and can compress CSF pathways.
- Porencephaly: Refers to cavities or cysts on the surface of the brain, which can disrupt normal CSF flow.
Hydrocephalus can arise from various causes that disrupt the normal production, flow, or absorption of CSF. Its classification can be based on factors like the age of onset, underlying mechanisms (such as obstructive vs. communicating), and associated conditions. Understanding the cause of hydrocephalus is essential for determining the appropriate treatment strategy, which may involve surgical procedures to relieve the obstruction or reduce CSF production.
What are the clinical Presentation of Infantile Hydrocephalus
Hydrocephalus in infants can manifest in several ways, depending on when it develops and the progression of symptoms. Early diagnosis may be possible during the prenatal period through routine ultrasound. Detecting hydrocephalus during pregnancy allows for close monitoring and the determination of the most appropriate delivery method.
If hydrocephalus begins in utero, it may lead to cephalopelvic disproportion, where the baby’s head is too large to pass through the mother’s pelvis easily. This can make labor and delivery difficult.
Postnatal Clinical Features
After birth, the primary sign of hydrocephalus is a progressive increase in head circumference, which should be monitored using an anthropometric chart. A steep upward trend beyond the 90th percentile suggests active and worsening hydrocephalus.
Key clinical features include:
1. Tense and Bulging Anterior Fontanelle: The soft spot on the baby’s head becomes prominent due to increased pressure.
2. Separation of Sutures: The spaces between the bones of the skull widen.
3. Engorgement of Scalp Veins: Veins on the scalp may appear more prominent.
4. Craniofacial Disproportion: The head appears disproportionately large compared to the face.
5. Sunset Appearance of the Eyes: The eyes tend to look downward, showing more of the white part above the iris due to increased intracranial pressure.
6. Neurological Symptoms:
- Irritability and Somnolence: The infant may be unusually fussy or excessively sleepy.
- Poor Suckling: Difficulty in feeding or weak sucking reflex.
- General Obtundation: Reduced responsiveness to environmental stimuli.
7. Exaggerated Tendon Reflexes: Increased reflex activity may be observed.
8. Vision Problems: Due to optic atrophy, vision may decline, potentially leading to blindness.
9. Epileptic Fits: Although less common, seizures may occur.
As intracranial pressure continues to rise, symptoms can worsen:
- Vomiting and Regurgitation of Feeds: The infant may frequently vomit due to the increased pressure on the brainstem.
- Dehydration: Loss of fluids can cause the anterior fontanelle to become less tense, potentially misleading caregivers into thinking the hydrocephalus is improving.
In terminal stages, there may be significant respiratory distress, with shallow and irregular breathing, eventually leading to respiratory failure.
What are the Clinical Presentation of Hydrocephalus in Older Children
In older children, the symptoms differ slightly because the anterior fontanelle and skull sutures have already closed, which limits the expansion of the head.
Key Features:
1. Increase in Head Circumference: Although it may still increase, the change is less dramatic compared to infants. Monitoring the disparity between the head circumference and weight/length growth curves can help assess the progression.
2. Morning Headaches: Headaches, often worse in the morning, can be an early sign due to increased intracranial pressure.
3. Early Vomiting: The child may experience frequent vomiting.
4. Papilledema: Swelling of the optic disc, visible on eye examination.
5. Cracked Pot Sound (Macewan’s Sign): A hollow sound heard when tapping on the skull, indicating areas of skull thinning.
6. Neurological Symptoms:
- Ocular Palsies: Weakness or paralysis of eye muscles.
- Ataxia: Difficulty in coordination and balance.
- Other Brainstem or Cerebellar Dysfunction: Includes increased tendon reflexes or other motor impairments.
These symptoms reflect the increased intracranial pressure and the impact on different brain structures, necessitating prompt evaluation and treatment to prevent further complications.
What are the Investigations you will like to do in a Hydrocephalus patient and why?
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Plain X-ray of the Skull:
- A skull X-ray may show signs indicative of hydrocephalus, such as a large head and widened sutures.
- In older children, there may be a copper-beaten appearance of the inner skull surface, which indicates increased intracranial pressure. This pattern results from pressure-induced erosion of the inner skull.
- Additional findings may include erosion of the clinoids of the sphenoid bone and hollowing of the pituitary fossa/Sella tunica, both of which are signs of long-standing hydrocephalus.
- Sometimes, an X-ray can reveal calcification, suggesting the presence of tumors like craniopharyngioma, glioma, or teratoma.
- In cases involving a vein of Galen aneurysm, a circular calcified ring may be observed.
- Detection of an unexpected skull fracture on an X-ray could point toward a subdural hematoma, which is a potential cause of increased intracranial pressure.
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CT Brain Scan:
- This is considered the investigation of choice for hydrocephalus.
- A CT scan can visualize the size of the ventricles, indicating the degree of ventricular enlargement.
- It helps determine the site and nature of any obstruction within the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pathways.
- The advent of CT scans has made older imaging techniques like ventriculography obsolete for diagnosing hydrocephalus.
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Ultrasound:
- This is particularly useful for monitoring the progression of hydrocephalus.
- It can outline the size of the ventricles, which is helpful in follow-up assessments.
- Ultrasound is most effective when the fontanelles are open and the sutures have not yet fused, as it allows the sound waves to penetrate the skull.
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Ventriculography:
- No longer commonly performed, as it has been replaced by more advanced imaging techniques like CT scans.
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Angiography:
- Useful in cases where there is a suspicion of neoplastic conditions, vascular malformations, or an aneurysm of the vein of Galen.
- Angiography helps define the size, shape, and location of any abnormalities, along with their vascular characteristics and any shifts in midline structures.
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MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging):
- MRI provides detailed imaging and can help identify conditions like aqueductal stenosis (narrowing of the cerebral aqueduct) and obstructive lesions near the third ventricle.
- It is useful in assessing the structure of the brain and CSF pathways in hydrocephalus patients.
What are the Indications for Treatments in hydrocephalus
Surgical intervention is usually imperative in hydrocephalus, except for cases of __________ caused by conditions other than hydrocephalus.
- Treatment is necessary if there is evidence of progression or if hydrocephalus does not spontaneously arrest.
- Spontaneous arrest of hydrocephalus may occur in a small percentage (5-10%) of patients with acquired hydrocephalus, especially following traumatic or spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage.
- Congenital non-communicating hydrocephalus is less likely to resolve without intervention, except in rare cases where a dilated third ventricle ruptures into the subarachnoid space.
- Surgical intervention is usually imperative in hydrocephalus, except for cases of megaloencephaly caused by conditions other than hydrocephalus.
Pre-operative Management
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Nutrition:
- Undernutrition is common in children with hydrocephalus, leading to poor stress tolerance and a weakened immune response.
- Proper nutritional support is crucial to prepare the child for surgery and reduce the risk of postoperative infections.
- Important factors to monitor and correct before surgery include fluid balance, electrolyte levels, blood urea, and hemoglobin levels.
- Vitamin supplementation, especially Vitamin A, is beneficial for improving the child’s general health status.
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Relieving Intracranial Pressure:
- While awaiting surgery, ventricular taps can be performed occasionally to reduce intracranial pressure.
- The administration of Diamox (acetazolamide) at 10 mg thrice weekly can also help reduce CSF production.
- Prompt management of any infections with appropriate antibiotics is essential to avoid complications during the preoperative period.
Proper assessment and management of hydrocephalus, along with appropriate investigations and pre-operative care, are crucial to improve outcomes and reduce complications in affected patients.
What are the Surgical Treatment for Hydrocephalus
Hydrocephalus can be managed surgically through two main approaches: direct and indirect (shunting). The choice of approach depends on the underlying cause (etiology) of the hydrocephalus.
Direct, Indirect Approach and Combination (Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy (ETV) and choroid plexus coagulation )
- Direct Approach
This approach involves addressing the root cause of hydrocephalus directly, either by reducing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) production or removing an obstruction.
Examples of Direct approach are?
(i) Choroid Plexectomy:
- The choroid plexus, which produces CSF, is targeted to reduce fluid production.
- Through a ventriculoscope, a large portion of the choroid plexus is coagulated, thereby decreasing CSF formation.
- Excision of papilloma (a tumor of the choroid plexus): This can be done through a transparietal cortical approach, where the tumor is surgically removed to decrease CSF production and pressure.
(ii) Removal of Obstruction:
- Surgical procedures to remove obstructions that hinder CSF flow include:
- Posterior fossa craniectomy: This involves removing part of the skull at the base of the brain (posterior fossa) to relieve pressure. Indications for this surgery include:
- Arnold-Chiari malformation: A condition where brain tissue extends into the spinal canal, causing CSF flow blockage.
- Arachnoid cysts: Fluid-filled sacs that can compress brain structures and obstruct CSF flow.
- Blake’s pouch cyst: This condition causes a partial obstruction of the fourth ventricle.
- Dandy-Walker syndrome: A congenital brain malformation involving the cerebellum, leading to enlarged ventricles and CSF obstruction.
- Posterior fossa tumors: Tumors in this region can obstruct CSF pathways.
- Indirect Approach in treating hydrocephalus (Shunting Procedures)
Shunting involves diverting excess CSF away from the brain’s ventricles to other parts of the body where it can be absorbed or drained.
What are the types of shunting procedures.
Types of Shunting Procedures:
There are three main methods of bypassing the CSF obstruction using a catheter system:
1. Intracranial Shunts: These divert CSF directly back into the CSF pathways, such as:
- Ventriculo-cisternostomy (Terkildsen’s method) or ventriculo-cervical shunt: CSF is directed from the ventricles to the cisterna magna (a space near the brainstem) or the upper cervical subarachnoid space.
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Extra-cranial Shunts to the Body:
- The distal end of the shunt is placed in a body cavity where CSF can be absorbed, such as the peritoneal cavity (abdominal cavity) or the pleural cavity (around the lungs).
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Shunts to the Bloodstream:
- These shunts connect CSF flow to the venous system, ensuring fluid is drained directly into the bloodstream using a valve system to prevent reflux (backflow of fluid).
Flow-Directed Valves:
- Shunting systems often use flow-directed valves that allow CSF to flow in one direction (away from the brain) without backflow through the catheter.
What are the Types of Shunt Procedures
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Ventriculo-cisternal or Ventriculo-cervical Shunt:
- Procedure: A small burr-hole is made in the parieto-occipital region of the skull. A Holter-type tube is introduced into the right lateral ventricle, with the distal end placed into the cisterna magna or upper cervical subarachnoid space. This may involve a limited occipital craniectomy to access the appropriate space.
- Indications: Effective for conditions like late aqueductal stenosis (narrowing of the cerebral aqueduct) or obstructions due to rectal tumors.
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Ventriculo-peritoneal Shunts:
- Procedure: The proximal end of the shunt drains CSF from the lateral ventricle, while the distal end is placed in the peritoneal cavity (suprahepatic space, right paracolic gutter, or pelvic cavity).
- Subcutaneous tunneling is used to connect the two ends, creating a path for CSF drainage beneath the skin.
- Usage: This is one of the most common types of shunt for hydrocephalus because the peritoneal cavity can absorb CSF effectively.
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Ventriculo-venous Shunts:
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Types:
- Ventriculo-atrial Shunt: The distal catheter is placed into the right atrium of the heart through the right common facial vein, guided under X-ray control.
- Ventriculo-umbilical Shunt: A less common approach where the distal end of the catheter is placed in the umbilical vein.
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Types:
These surgical treatments aim to relieve intracranial pressure and normalize CSF flow to prevent further neurological damage and improve symptoms associated with hydrocephalus. The choice of procedure depends on the specific anatomical and clinical factors involved in each patient’s case.
Combination of Direct and Indirect Approaches in Hydrocephalus Treatment
When treating hydrocephalus, combining direct and indirect surgical approaches can enhance outcomes, especially in specific cases of obstructive hydrocephalus. The combination of Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy (ETV) and choroid plexus coagulation is one such technique that is utilized.
Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy (ETV) and Choroid Plexus Coagulation
Endoscopic Third Ventriculostomy (ETV):
- ETV is a minimally invasive procedure aimed at treating obstructive hydrocephalus, where CSF flow is blocked. It involves creating a small hole in the floor of the third ventricle, allowing CSF to bypass the obstruction and flow directly into the subarachnoid space, where it can be reabsorbed.
- This procedure avoids the long-term complications associated with shunt surgeries, such as infections, shunt malfunction, or over-drainage of CSF.
The procedure details of Combination of Direct and Indirect Treatment
Procedure Details:
- Coronal Burr Hole at Kocher’s Point: The procedure begins by drilling a burr hole at Kocher’s point, which is located 2.5-3 cm lateral to the midline and 1 cm anterior to the coronal suture.
- Using an endoscope, a fenestration (hole) is made in the floor of the third ventricle to create a new pathway for CSF.
- Success Rates: The success rate for ETV varies but generally ranges from 64% to 86.4%, as reported by different studies:
- Sacko et al.: 68.5%
- Amini and Schmidt: 72%
- Kulkarni et al.: 64%
- Gangemi et al.: 86.4%
Factors Affecting ETV Outcomes:
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Poor Outcomes: ETV is less effective in:
- Infants under 1 month of age
- Post-infective hydrocephalus (following an infection that leads to hydrocephalus)
- Patients with a history of prior shunt surgeries
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Better Outcomes: Success rates improve in patients:
- Older than 10 years
- With aqueductal stenosis (narrowing of the cerebral aqueduct that obstructs CSF flow)
- Who have no history of prior shunt procedures
Choroid Plexus Coagulation:
- Benjamin Warf reintroduced the practice of combining choroid plexus coagulation with ETV. The procedure aims to reduce CSF production by coagulating part of the choroid plexus. This combined approach has shown good results, especially in cases of hydrocephalus where excessive CSF production contributes to the condition.
ETV Success Score
The ETV Success Score is used to predict the likelihood of success of an ETV procedure based on several factors:
- Age of the Patient
- Cause (Etiology) of Hydrocephalus
- History of Previous Shunt Surgery
Scoring System
The total ETV Success Score is the sum of the scores for age, etiology, and previous shunt history, which gives an approximate percentage chance of a successful ETV outcome.
Component | Score | Age | |
| ≤ 1 month | 10 |
| 1 month - 6 months | 30 |
| 6 months - <1 year | 40 |
| 1 - <10 years | 50 |
| ≥ 10 years | 60 |
| Etiology | |
| Myelomeningocele | 20 |
| Post-infectious hydrocephalus | 10 |
| Brain tumor-related hydrocephalus | 30 |
| Intraventricular hemorrhage | 10 |
| Non-tectal hydrocephalus | 40 |
| Previous Shunt History | || Yes | 10 |
| No | 30 |
Clinical Significance
- ETV with Choroid Plexus Coagulation is particularly valuable for patients where CSF overproduction and obstruction coexist, as it addresses both issues: restoring CSF flow through the ventricles and reducing CSF formation.
- This combination approach has become a favorable alternative to shunting, particularly in older children and adults with obstructive hydrocephalus, providing a long-term solution without the need for implantable devices.
Understanding the patient’s age, hydrocephalus etiology, and history of shunt surgeries is crucial in deciding whether ETV and choroid plexus coagulation is a suitable option and in predicting the likely success of the procedure.
What are the Complications of Shunt Procedures
Shunt procedures, commonly used to treat hydrocephalus, involve placing a catheter system to redirect cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the ventricles of the brain to another part of the body for reabsorption. However, various complications can arise from these procedures, and they are generally categorized as cranial, cardiovascular, and abdominal depending on the type of shunt used.
- Cranial Complications
These complications involve issues related to the brain and surrounding structures:
- Disconnection or Displacement: Parts of the shunt system, such as the ventricular, atrial, or peritoneal catheters, may disconnect or shift from the main valve or flushing device, leading to malfunction.
- Blockage of the Peritoneal Catheter: This can occur due to proteinous exudate that forms as a result of an infection or thrombosis following bleeding within the ventricular system, which can obstruct the flow of CSF.
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Other Cranial Issues:
- Intraventricular Migration of the Shunt: The shunt may move into the ventricular space, causing malfunction or additional damage.
- Skin Erosion and Shunt Exposure: The skin covering the shunt may erode, leading to exposure of the shunt hardware, which increases the risk of infection.
- Subdural Hematomas: Bleeding may occur between the brain and its outer membrane, forming a subdural hematoma, which can increase intracranial pressure.
- Intraparenchymal Hemorrhage: Bleeding within the brain tissue itself can occur, which can be life-threatening and may require immediate medical intervention.
- Cardiovascular Complications
These are associated with the heart and blood vessels, especially in cases where the shunt drains into the bloodstream:
- Embolism and Thrombosis: Clots may form within the shunt, leading to embolism (blockage of a blood vessel by a clot that has traveled from elsewhere) or thrombosis (clot formation within the shunt).
- Relative Shortening of the Shunt: As a child grows, the length of the shunt may become inadequate, necessitating a shunt revision.
- Damage to the Right Atrium: In rare cases, the catheter tip can cause damage to the right atrium of the heart, leading to arrhythmias or other cardiac complications.
- Abdominal Complications
These complications arise when the shunt drains into the abdominal cavity (e.g., ventriculoperitoneal shunt):
- Catheter Migration: The catheter may move out of the abdominal cavity, leading to ineffective drainage.
- Ascites or Abdominal Cysts: Accumulation of fluid in the abdomen (ascites) or the formation of abdominal cysts can occur, potentially causing discomfort or other complications.
- Bowel Perforation and Intestinal Issues: The shunt catheter may perforate the bowel, or cause volvulus (twisting of the intestine), both of which can be serious and require surgical intervention.
- Catheter Blockage: Similar to cranial complications, the catheter can become blocked, preventing CSF drainage.
- Infection: Infections such as ventriculitis (infection of the brain’s ventricles), peritonitis (infection of the abdominal lining), bacteremia (presence of bacteria in the blood), or septicemia (blood infection) may occur. If the shunt becomes infected, the entire shunt system often needs to be removed, and the infection must be treated with appropriate antibiotics before a new shunt can be inserted.
- Other Complications
Additional complications can arise based on the type of shunt used:
- Shunt Infection: This can occur with any shunt type, increasing the risk of life-threatening infections like meningitis.
- Shunt Nephritis: This is a kidney condition seen in patients with ventriculoatrial shunts. It results from immune complex deposition in the kidneys due to the body’s reaction to the shunt material.
- Massive Pleural Effusion: In ventriculopleural shunts, large amounts of fluid may collect in the pleural space (the cavity surrounding the lungs), leading to breathing difficulties.
Summary
The complications associated with shunt procedures for hydrocephalus can be serious and potentially life-threatening, requiring prompt recognition and management. Routine follow-up and monitoring are essential to detect and address complications early. In some cases, revision or replacement of the shunt system may be necessary, especially if issues like blockage, infection, or displacement arise.