Human Society Unit Flashcards
What are the features of Marxism?
- The Means of Production
- The Four Classes
- Surplus Value
- Infrastructure/Superstructure
- Ruling Class Ideology & False Consciousness
- Alienation
Explain the Means of Production as a feature of Marxism.
The Means of Production is where Marx claimed that all known societies have two main social groups - a ruling class and a subject class. The ruling class own all the resources of society and the subject class have no choice but to work for them while also being customers to their goods. The ruling class own the forces of production. these are the raw materials and the methods of producing goods (the economic base).
Explain the Four Classes as a feature of Marxism.
The Bourgeoisie are the owners and controllers of the means of production whilst the Petit Bourgeoisie own small businesses and may employ others. The Proletariat are the non-owning wage slaves while the Lumpenproletariat are the ‘class of outcasts’.
The Four Classes is where Marx claimed that the subject social groups will never achieve class consciousness and so won’t be part of the revolutionary struggle. There is even competition between the ruling classes as the Bourgeoisie threaten the businesses of the Petit Bourgeoisie due to large scale of production.
Explain Surplus Value as a feature of Marxism.
Surplus Value is where wages paid to the workers are below the real value of the goods they produce. the difference (Surplus Value) is pocketed by the capitalist class in the form of profits. The harder the Proletariat works, the more profit they make for the Bourgeoisie. The consumer and worker are being exploited, the Bourgeoisie is therefore parasitic on them both.
Explain Infrastructure/Superstructure as a feature of Marxism.
Infrastructure/Superstructure is where capitalist societies contain two main ‘spheres of influence’. The economic base (capitalist infrastructure) determines the form taken in the political and ideological superstructure (the arts, culture, religion and beliefs). The economically dominant class, the Bourgeoisie, use economic power to secure political and ideological power and so it is said that the base determines the superstructure. This is a key criticism of this approach in that it appears to be an example of ‘economic determinism’.
Explain Ruling Class Ideology & False Consciousness as a feature of Marxism.
Ruling Class Ideology & False Consciousness is where it is argued that the ruling class try to convince the Proletariat that inequality and the extraction of surplus value is acceptable by telling them that capitalism is the best system. The ruling class transmit their ideas through the agents of socialisation: the workplace, family, media, politics, etc… There dominant ideas are called ‘ideology’. in this sense the Proletariat is brainwashed so they don’t realise they are being exploited. this is False Class Consciousness. The Proletariat think they are conscious of their own class interests, but aren’t fully aware of how much they are being exploited due to the Ruling Class Ideology. Cultural hegemony is the notion that the ruling classes have cultural hegemony. they determine the culture of a nation, and because of this oppressed classes develop what is called ‘False Consciousness’.
Explain Alienation as a feature of Marxism.
Alienation is where workers are completely divorced (alien) from the work process. they don’t make many meaningful decisions, control their own labour, get to be creative or receive a share of the profits. Workers may be alienated without knowing it. For example, despite being alien from the work process they may happily turn up to work so they are a cog in a wheel. this is more unusual though as many members of the Proletariat do feel their alienation - they grumble about bosses and poor management decisions daily.
What are the strengths of Marxism?
- It explains the organisation of society under capitalism.
- It explains the notion of false consciousness.
Evaluate how Marxism explains the organisation of society under capitalism as a strength.
Marxism explains the organisation of society under capitalism, and recognises the power interests of different groups. The Bourgeoisie aim to maximise their profits and keep the wages of the Proletariat in the check. Marxism brings notice to the active exploitation and helps to recognise the impact it has on people’s life chances and quality of life, helping people to become more conscious and fight from under the control of the ruling class.
Evaluate how Marxism explains the notion of false consciousness as a strength.
Marxism explains the notion of false consciousness as when the ruling class tries to convince the Proletariat of the acceptability of inequality and the extraction of surplus value. They will transmit their dominant ideas (ideologies) through agents of socialisation that brainwashes the Proletariat and leaves them unaware of the exploitation they are experiencing.
What are the weaknesses of Marxism?
- It struggles to explain the persistence of phenomena’s.
- It ignores the existence of other influences.
Evaluate how Marxism struggles to explain the persistence of phenomena’s as a weakness.
Marxism finds it difficult to explain the persistence of certain phenomena’s. For example, there are individuals who have awareness of the exploitation they face as a worker and consumer of the ruling class but still there has been no revolution to attempt to change this.
Evaluate how Marxism ignores the existence of other influences as a weakness.
Marxism overlooks other influences that might shape behaviour and therefore is not a strong explanation. Other factors such as gender and sex may affect how a person chooses to act or how they can progress. to ignore the existing inequalities between humans leaves major gaps in this theory and leaves in weak because it focuses on a smaller picture than is necessary.
What are the features of Feminism?
- Malestream Sociology
- Sociobiology
- Gender Role Socialisation
- Sex VS Gender
Explain Malestream Sociology as a feature of Feminism.
Since the 1960’s the sociological study of gender has uncovered a great deal of information about the way in which societies and the way these identities affect our educational achievement, job opportunities, self-esteem, health and general life chances. Such research came about due to complaints about the invisibility of women in mainstream or ‘malestream’ sociology where most research was conducted by male sociologists about issues that affect men. this was also true of subjects like history which specialised in telling a mans story.
Explain Sociobiology as a feature of Feminism.
Sociobiology is the view that men and women have developed different characteristics and abilities through evolution. For example, as men can spread their genes widely they should have more sex than women who produce one egg a month. George Peter Murdoch studied 224 societies and found hunting, lumbering and mining mainly male roles while water carrying, cooking, repairing clothes and gathering vegetables female roles. Murdoch attributed women are tied to the home due to childbearing and breastfeeding ad they were ruled out of strenuous tasks as they were weaker. He concluded the sexual labour division was universal and based on physical appearance due to sex difference. Ann Oakley opposed this and showed only childbearing was a one-sex role. 14 societies saw women lumbering, 38 societies had men cooking and 36 societies had only women clearing land.
Explain Gender Role Socialisation as a feature of Feminism.
Studies have found parents expected children to act differently depending on their sex and will treat them differently too. Gender Role Socialisation continues on from childhood and throughout life. Definitions of masculinity and femininity are socially constructed and change over time and pace. in the past women who worked or wore trousers were seen as unfeminine, and men who spent too much time with their kids or did domestic labour were ‘effeminate’. Anthropologists repost men are to ignore insults and be co-operative and passive in Tahiti, while in the East African Samburu tribe men have to begin tests of bravery from 14/15 where they face shame if they flinch. Sociologists argue that definitions of what constitutes masculine and feminine behaviour is different from biological sex differences.
Explain Sex Vs Gender as a feature of Feminism.
‘Sex’ refers to external genitalia, internal genitalia, gonads, hormonal states and secondary sex characteristics. ‘Gender’ refers to cultural conceptions of ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ behaviour which are passed on to children by the society they live in. These terms have been blurred though, due to attempt to avoid confusion from ‘sex’ as male/female and ‘sex’ as intercourse.
What are the strengths of Feminism?
- It increases awareness of gender inequalities.
- It shows gender roles are socially constructed.
- It made the role of women and gender relations visible.
Evaluate how Feminism increases awareness of gender inequalities as a strength.
Feminism increases people’s awareness of present gender inequalities. More people being aware increases the chances of change because more people understand the issue and empathise with it. it reaches out to men who have the upper end of the inequalities and are the people necessary to make change in this male power dominant world.
Evaluate how Feminism shows gender roles are socially constructed as a strength.
Feminism shows that gender roles are socially constructed and therefore vary through time and place. In different societies around the world women take on roles that in other places would be a male dominated position, and vice versa.
Evaluate how Feminism made the role of women and gender relations visible as a strength.
Feminism made the role of women and gender relations visible.
What are the weaknesses of Feminism?
- It is a biased view against men.
- It is a hypocritical view.
- It ignores the current changes being made.
Evaluate how Feminism is a biased view against men as a weakness.
Feminism is a biased view against men. It stereotypes men when in reality some men do not exploit women and actually see themselves as feminists, wanting to fight with the cause. This makes it weak as it harms the male support that feminism has as it forms all men under the same roof, leaving innocent men offended, misunderstood, and no longer motivated to fight for equality for women.
Evaluate how Feminism is a hypocritical view as a weakness.
Feminism is a hypocritical view. Women are now degrading men in the same way they believe men are doing to them. This makes Feminism weak as it makes female feminists look as if they are acting out of spite and retaliation instead of for equality - could be seen as wanting to overpower men which would lose further support.
Evaluate how Feminism ignores the current changes being made as a weakness.
Feminism ignores that there is currently changes being made in a move towards male-female equality. Acts such as the Equal Pay Act and Free Will have been introduced to increase inequality. Drastic changes cannot happen in an instant and this ignorance could be viewed as greed as there is no appreciation for what change is actually happening.
What are the features of Functionalism?
- Organic Analogy
- Anomie
- Functional Importance
- Role Allocation & Meritocracy
- Creating Social Solidarity/Value Consensus
Explain Organic Analogy as a feature of Functionalism.
Talcott Parsons saw society as working like a human body, arguing that institutions in society were like organs in the body - each performing specific functions which were necessary to the maintenance of the whole. Parsons argued that parts of society should be understood in term of what they contribute to the maintenance of the whole. Functionalists view societies as operating on similar principles to operational systems such as living organisms; with regards to the human body, each body part is, to some extent, related to the others and therefore has a function in the proper working of the body.
Explain Functional Importance as a feature of Functionalism.
Some organs have more ‘functional importance’ than others just as the heart is more crucial to the health of the human body than the big toe, but all parts interconnect and interrelate to create an orderly system that adds up to something greater than the total of its individual parts. For example, the political system is the brain, guiding society, whereas the economic system is the digestive system, making sure the body has enough materail resources (food). The family, education and religious systems are like the heart pumping morals of right and wrong around the body. These moral values are the life blood of society. Just like the human body, societies all have basic needs - or ‘functional prerequisites’ - and component parts have identifiable purpose, or ‘functions’. When all parts are operating in harmony, the result is social order. when hey break down the result is ‘anomie’ (Normlessness).
Explain Anomie as a feature of Functionalism.
Durkheim believed that too much freedom was bad for the individual - when individuals have too much freedom, or when there is no clear guidance about what’s right or wrong, individuals suffer from a sense of uncertainty and confusion about their place in the world, not knowing what they should be doing, a condition called ‘anomie’.
Explain Role Allocation & Meritocracy as a feature of Functionalism.
This ensures that the most talented people are allocated to the occupations that are most important for society. This is seen to be fair because there is equality of opportunity - everyone has a chance of success, and it is the most able who succeed through their own efforts - this is known as meritocracy. Growing populations meant people specialised in activities and started a division in labour which created an exchange system, leaving people dependent on one another and developed a feeling of social solidarity. However, Egoism can occur where people aren’t properly integrated.
Explain Creating Social Solidarity/Value Consensus as a feature of Functionalism.
Family is the cornerstone of society! Durkheim argued that societies needed to create a sense of social solidarity - which is making individuals feel as if they are part of something bigger and teaching them the standards of acceptable behaviour. Parsons argued that social order was mainly achieved not through the rule of force, but through institutions promoting value consensus - which is agreement around shared values. Parsons argued that commitment to common values is the basis for order in society. Principle or standards of behaviour; one’s judgement of what is important in life.
What are the strengths of Functionalism?
- It explains how society minimises conflict.
- It explains how parts of society function to maintain the whole.
- It shows how society adapts to overcome change.
- It shows how different institutes operate in complementary manner to produce social stability.
- It shows the importance of share culture for social order.
Evaluate how Functionalism explains how society minimises conflict as a strength.
Functionalism explains how society minimises conflict through socialisation and social control.
Evaluate how Functionalism explains how parts of society function to maintain the whole as a strength.
Functionalism explains how different parts of the social system function to maintain the whole.
Evaluate how Functionalism shows how society adapts to overcome change as a strength.
Functionalism shows how society adapts to overcome economic and other change.
Evaluate how Functionalism shows how different institutes operate in complementary manner to produce social stability as a strength.
Functionalism shows how different institutions operate in complementary manner to produce overall social stability.
Evaluate how Functionalism shows the importance of share culture for social order as a strength.
Functionalism shows the importance of shared culture as the basis of social order.
What are the weaknesses of Functionalism?
- It explains how society functions as a whole but the whole is capitalism which is unjust.
- It shows that culture produces harmony.
- It doesn’t give sufficient weight to human agency.
- It is an ideological defense of the status quo regarding who has power.
Evaluate how Functionalism explains how society functions as a whole but the whole is capitalisms which is unjust as a weakness.
Functionalism explains how society functions as a whole, but the whole is capitalism which is a socially and economically unjust society. This makes it weak as many people are against capitalism due to how unfair it is and therefore will not settle to work as part of the whole.
Evaluate how Functionalism shows that culture produces harmony as a weakness.
Functionalism shows that culture is treated as though it is an undifferentiated ‘glue’ that everyone shares. and which produces harmony.
Evaluate how Functionalism doesn’t give sufficient weight to human agency as a weakness.
Functionalism doesn’t give sufficient weight to human agency (the ability to make our own choices). This makes it weak because as much as people may be influences, individuals still have free will and make their own choices, leaving a controlled and harmonised community not always plausible.
Evaluate how Functionalism is an ideological defense of the status quo regarding who has power as a weakness.
Functionalism is, in effect, an ideological defence of the status quo regarding who has power and who doesn’t.
What are the features of Symbolic Interactionism?
- Symbols Must Have Shared Meaning
- Being Self-Conscious Leads To Empathy
- Role Taking Image
- Significant Others
Explain Symbols Must Have Shared Meaning as a feature of Symbolic Interactionism.
The important thing about a symbolic system is that it must be shared. I can say ‘I bought a table’ because all those who speak English share a common notion of what ‘table’ symbolises, whereas in China or France, I’d need to use another word as they have a different agreement on the word for a table. The ability to use language to symbolise the world around us opens huge possibilities for social behaviour and interaction. It enables us to explain our thoughts to another person. It enables us to discuss aspects of life such as politics and religion without necessarily agreeing with a particular viewpoint or being part of a political or religious group.
Explain Being Self-Conscious Leads To Empathy as a feature of Symbolic Interactionism.
Mead was also interested in the way which the ability to symbolise allows the human being to be ‘self-conscious’. In other words, you can imagine or describe yourself in a particular situation without being there. We can also put ourselves in the place of another person and think about how they might feel or act - this is known as empathy.
Explain Role Taking Image as a feature of Symbolic Interactionism.
Another important aspect of Mead’s theory was the concept of role taking. This means we can see ourselves from another person’s point of view. For example, you can put yourself in your mother’s shoes and think how she sees you as her child. Or you can think of how your tutor sees you as a student. You, of course, are the same person but can stand outside yourself and view how you fulfil roles in society. In the same way, you can think about other roles you might take on in society.
Explain Significant Others as a feature of Symbolic Interactionism.
The way we learn roles in life is through significant others - these are the people who surround the individual and from whom they learn social behaviour (they change throughout a persons life). Mead suggests that the way we learnt o behave is through others. In other words, the way we learn about and interact with society comes from those around us. This includes the image we have of ourselves. If other people are positive towards us, then we will have a more positive image of ourselves, whereas if people are negative, this can lead to low self-esteem. If Mead is right, then the society we live in, the environment we grow up in and the interactions we have, are all-important factors in explaining our social behaviour.
What are the strengths of Symbolic Interactionism?
- It focuses on the individual instead of categorising people into groups.
- It allows us to compare how we act with different people.
- It helps us to understand the social construction of the world.
Evaluate how Symbolic Interactionism focuses on the individual instead of categorising people into groups as a strength.
Symbolic Interactionism focuses on the individual rather than categorising the people in groups of society. This helps to eliminate generalisations and allows more accurate findings of how symbolism works due to all people facing different experiences.
Evaluate how Symbolic Interactionism allows us to compare how we act with different people as a strength.
Symbolic Interactionism allows us to compare the way we act with different people. Due to its focus on the individual instead of groups we are able to understand how a person interacts with another through past experience and compare this to a person who has had different.
Evaluate how Symbolic Interactionism helps us to understand the social construction of the world as a strength.
Symbolic Interactionism helps us to understand the social construction of the world.
What are the weaknesses of Symbolic Interactionism?
- It uses quantitative data.
- It does not consider every individual.
- It emphasises meaning without investigating the origin.
Evaluate how Symbolic Interactionism uses quantitative data as a weakness.
Symbolic Interactionism collects and uses quantitative data.
Evaluate how Symbolic Interactionism does not consider every individual as a weakness.
Symbolic Interactionism may focus on the individual but it does not take into consideration every individual. The lack of acknowledgement for those who are unable to make choices and have little free will makes this weak because it forgets people have to act a certain way or are forced into certain beliefs or behaviours.
Evaluate how Symbolic Interactionism emphasises meaning without investigating the origin as a weakness.
Symbolic Interactionism emphasises meaning without necessarily investigating the origins of the meaning.
What are the features of Weberism?
- Patterns of Social Action
- Verstehen
- The Iron Cage of Bureaucracy
- The Protestant Work Ethic
- Class, Party & Status
Explain Patterns of Social Action as a feature of Weberism.
Humans do a bit of all of these:
Traditional Action - is habitual, where people carry out daily tasks or act in a particular way because they have always done so.
Value Orientated Action - actions where behaviour is motivated by a higher purpose or duty.
Affective Actions - driven by powerful human emotions such as weeping out of grief, there is no thought to goals or values.
Goal Orientated Action - driven by principles of efficiency and science, goals and means are rationally chosen.
Weber believed that instrumental rational action is replacing tradition, emotion and values as motivators.
Explain Verstehen as a feature of Weberism.
[German for ‘understanding’]
Weber uses this concept as a technique for gaining understanding of the motivations of social action. This technique relies on the direct observation and interpretation and allows us to put ourselves in the situation of others. Weber argued for a scientific objective and value free approach to social research. he studied the underlying motives behind social action and concluded that different societies at different timers were characterised by different forms of action.
Explain The Iron Cage of Bureaucracy as a feature of Weberism.
Weber agreed that one of the downsides of capitalism was there is a huge increase in bureaucracy. Large armies of bureaucrats are employed in businesses to rationally calculate profits of efficiency and they sometimes make up more of the workforce than those who deliver a service or make the product. Weber believed that those who controlled the organisations controlled quality of life as well. Bureaucrats can’t deal with an individual and their circumstance, they only relate through script and code. They are a cog in a machine and became indifferent to human suffering. Service bureaucracies like the NHS help the sick and elderly but deny based on certain criteria. Although Weber felt that capitalism and the iron cage of bureaucracy were inevitable, he wrote many papers about deadening the effect of bureaucracy and claimed it to be the most pressing problem.
Explain The Protestant Work Ethic as a feature of Weberism.
Weber differed from Marx in that he through the ‘mode of production’ change from Feudalism to Capitalism due to a religious movement, not from class struggle. Protestantism had a particular branch called Calvinists. In the 17th Century Calvinists believed that some were ‘elect’ (saved) and that is was a persons duty to lead on ascetic life (no sensual pleasure). Work was seen as a calling - idleness was an affront to God. The effect of this religious belief was that Calvinists saved money (others spent it on a good time). The only thing they spent it on was new factories. Weber argued that Calvinists were concentrated. Hence it was a religious sect that promoted the proliferation of capitalist industries.
Explain Class, Party & Status as a feature of Weberism.
Weber disagreed with Marx on social class…
Weber agreed economic class was as Marx described it, but social status was instead how much social honour a person had. he also believed party was how much power a group had.
These factors make up a persons market situation. Although mots sociologists would now accept class, status and party as useful distinction, Neo-marxists argue economic class is the most important and shape both status and party.
What are the strengths of Weberism?
- It explains the idea that individual motives can lead to huge structural changes.
- It recognises we need to understand individual meaning to understand societies changes.
Evaluate how Weberism explains the idea that individual motives can lead to huge structural changes as a strength.
Weber explains the idea that individual motives can lead to huge structural level changes such as the emergence of Capitalism is especially interesting.
Evaluate how Weberism recognises we need to understand individual meaning to understand societies changes as a strength.
Weber recognised that we need to understand individual meanings to understand how societies change (unlike Marxism).
What are the weaknesses of Weberism?
- It focuses on society shaping the individual.
- It has is evidence contradicting the theory.
- It may not cover all types of motivation - there may be more than four types.
Evaluate how Weberism focuses on society shaping the individual as a weakness.
Weber still has too much focus on society shaping the individual - symbolic interactionism argues that individuals have more freedom to shape their identities. These contrasting ideas make the theory weak as it is not certain.
Evaluate how Weberism has is evidence contradicting the theory as a weakness.
Weber’s theory of the emergence of Capitalism has been criticised as there is evidence of some forms of capitalism existing before Protestantism. This makes Weber’s theory weak as there is evidence that shuts down the ideas he had and leaves them meaningless.
Evaluate how Weberism may not cover all types of motivation - there may be more than four types - as a weakness.
Weber’s theory is weak because there may well be more types of motivation than just four types.
What are the features of Structural Theory?
- Macro Approach
- Positivist
- Lack of Agency (Structuralism)
Explain Macro Approach as a feature of Structural Theory.
Structural Theory takes a Marco approach. This means that is looks at the bigger picture as it looks at society as a whole.
Explain Positivist as a feature of Structural Theory.
Structural Theory takes a Positivist approach. This means that it implies cause and effect - society influences the individual and their behaviour.
Explain Lack of Agency (Structuralism) as a feature of Structural Theory.
Structural Theory have the view that there is a lack of agency which can also be known as Structuralism. This means that individuals have no control over you own actions, instead society dictates and decides your actions for you.
What theories come under Structural Theory?
- Marxism
- Functionalism
Explain Micro Approach as a feature of Action Theory.
Action Theory takes a micro approach. This means that they look at the individuals within society.
What are the features of Action Theory?
- Micro Approach
- Interpretivist
- ‘Having’ Agency (Social Action)
Explain Interpretivist as a feature of Action Theory.
Action Theory takes an interpretivist approach which is also known as phenomenology. This means that it looks at the way in which society is created or shaped by the individual. It believes that social reality is constructed in the minds of socials actors and the ways in which individuals interpret and create their social world.
Explain ‘Having’ Agency (Social Action) as a feature of Action Theory.
Action Theory believe that in ‘having’ agency which can also be known as social action. This means that is believes that individuals have control over their own actions in society and so decide how they act and interact in socially meaningful ways.
What theories come under Action Theory?
- Symbolic Interactionism
What are similarities between Conflict and Consensus Theory?
Explain … as a similarity between Conflict and Consensus Theory.
Explain … as a similarity between Conflict and Consensus Theory.
Explain … as a similarity between Conflict and Consensus Theory.
What are differences between Conflict and Consensus Theory?
Explain … as a difference between Conflict and Consensus Theory.
Explain … as a difference between Conflict and Consensus Theory.
Explain … as a difference between Conflict and Consensus Theory.
What are the differences between Common Sense and Sociology?
- What it is based on.
- Whether it’s the truth.
