Human - Resource Security

Question 1

Resource Development:
Concept of a resource:

Answer 1

1. Definition:
   A resource is any feature of the natural environment that can be used to meet human needs.
2. Stock resource (non-renewable):
   These are finite and can’t be replaced (e.g. fossil fuels).
3. Flow resource (renewable):
   These can be replenished, will never run out and don’t need human management (e.g. wind or solar energy).
4. Critical flow resources (renewable):
   These are flow resources that also need human management (wood from forests/biomass).

Question 2

Resource Development:
Stock resource evaluation:

Answer 2

• There is a globally uneven distribution of resources. Some countries have many natural resources, others need to trade for them.
• And, because stock resources can be expensive to extract and transport, TNCs must go through an evaluation to decide if this resource is economically viable.
• They do this by doing a stock resource evaluation (assessing quantity and quality).
• They distinguish them between resources and reserves.
  RESOURCE: is the entire energy supply (including what’s undiscovered).
  RESERVE: is the amount of the resource that is economically viable to extract.

Question 3

Resource Development:
Stock resource evaluation:

Answer 3

The international scale used to evaluate resource viability:

• Possible resources: those thought to exist (based on knowledge of the area and geology), but have not been sampled/found yet.
• Measured reserves: the size, densities, qualities and physical characteristics of the reserve has been measured and is accurately known.

Question 4

Resource Development:
Inferred resources:

Answer 4

Inferred resources:
These are resources that have been identified (from samples of local geology), but not yet measured.

Question 5

Resource Development:
Indicated reserves:

Answer 5

Indicated reserves:
The size, quantity, densities and physical characteristics of the reserve has been partly measured, and the measurements have been used to estimate the extent of the actual reserve.

Question 6

Resource Development:
How are natural resources developed over time? (stages of development)

Answer 6

Exploration: Locating a potential new resource and evaluating whether it is viable to extract (by sampling and surveying the area).
Exploitation: Extracting the resource, preparing it for use and transporting it to where it will be used.
Depletion: The resource begins to run out
Development: As yields decrease, new methods of extraction may be developed to prolong the life of the resource
Exhaustion: Eventually, the resource becomes so limited that it is not physically possible or economically viable to extract any more.

Question 7

Natural Resource Issues:
Global Patterns of Production:

Answer 7

= Globally, there is a very uneven distribution. The countries with lots of natural resources and the money to exploit them are on top. Some other countries have a lot of money, but no natural resources (Spain), others have no money to exploit them, but a lot of natural resources (Angola).
= Coal: over 70% of coal lies in the northern hemisphere. Biggest producer is China, then India, then the USA.
= Oil: The main gas fields are found where large sedimentary rock build ups are/fold mountain ranges. The biggest producers are the middle east (Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, UAE) and then places like Nigeria, USA, Russia, China). The OPEC has 40% of global production and is a group of oil producing nations (mainly from the middle east. They have significant geopolitical power, but are politically unstable).
= Natural Gas: This is more sporadic and localised. The main exporters are Russia, Norway, Algeria, Canada and OPEC.
= Nuclear: Because this is a man made resource, it is mainly produced in HICs/MICs. The biggest exporters are the USA, China, France and Russia, as they can afford to make the power stations. However, they are in decline due to public concerns on safety and cost.
= HEP: is also dependent on the financial ability of the country to build the facilities, and on their availability of water. The biggest producers are China (three gorges dam), USA, Canada, Russia. Although, SA and SE Asia and Africa are all developing major HEP projects.
= Biomass: is dependent on the abundance of wood, so the biggest producers are the USA, Brazil and Indonesia.
= Other renewables: Solar power needs sunlight, with the biggest producers being China, USA, Japan, Vietnam, India. Wind power is dependent on the weather too, with the biggest producers being China, USA, India, Germany, UK, Spain. Geothermal needs volcanic energy, so the biggest producers are Iceland, NZ, USA and Central America.

Question 8

Natural Resource Issues:
Global Patterns of Production: How is energy traded between countries?

Answer 8

How is energy traded between countries?
= Non-renewables: There is a clear pattern of producing nations (mainly MICs and LICs) to consuming nations (HICs). There are chokepoints in trade of energy, such as the Suez Canal, the Panama Canal, Bosporus, Cape of Good Hope, and the Danish Straits. The biggest chokepoints are the Strait of Hormuz and the Strait of Malacca, with around 20 million barrels passing through each day.
= Renewables: Renewables can’t be transported easily, as they create electricity, which needs wires to be transported. So, trade in them can be done by neighbouring countries, but not yet globally.

Question 9

Natural Resource Issues:
Global Patterns of Consumption:

Answer 9

= There is an uneven distribution, with the HICs consuming the most, as their people live energy-intensive lives.
= A strong relationship between GDP and energy consumption, and a significant energy gap between rich and poor nations.
= Some nations don’t consume much per person, but do overall due to their large population (Brazil).
= Agriculture (32%), industry (31%) and household (20%) consumption are the biggest consuming sectors.
= The main factors that affect the energy consumption of a country are: physical availability, cost, standard of living, environmental priorities (of governments and the people), climate, public perception, economic development and technology. But, most of these factors all stem from the country’s economic stance.

Question 10

Natural Resource Issues:
The geopolitics of energy (production, trade and use):

Answer 10

Definition: Geopolitics is “politics, especially international relations, as influenced by geographical factors”.

• Energy use is increasing in our globalising world, and there is an uneven global distribution of energy, which inevitably leads to geopolitical issues of energy production, use and trade.
• Also, the factor of different financial means of nations an existing conflicts can determine geopolitical issues.
• And that much of the energy reserves are in politically unstable places.
• However, with the shift to renewables, this could help decentralise energy production and trade patterns.
• Although, this is not reality, as the geopolitical issues will just shift elsewhere with renewables.

Question 11

Natural Resource Issues:
The geopolitics of energy (production, trade and use): EXAMPLES

Answer 11

EX:
- OPEC (13 oil exporting nations) hold a lot of power, around 60% of all oil exports and 80% of oil reserves. They can cause global political issues, like in 1973 during the Arab-Israeli war, OPEC placed an oil embargo on any nation supporting Israel (including the USA). They only get more powerful as oil supplies decrease globally and demand increases.

• In Europe, Russia has power with their natural gas supplies. Germany is the biggest consumer of it. Nord Stream 2 causes issues. There was opposition in Germany, the EU, Ukraine (from fear of losing on their $3billion transit fee), and the USA.
• This is because Russia is unreliable and threatens the energy security and political stability of Europe. Russia now essentially controls Europe’s main force (Germany).
• In 2006 and 2009, Russia just turned off Nord Stream 1 to Europe, due to issues with Ukraine stealing gas. This meant that most of Europe was without gas for some time.

Question 12

Natural Resource Issues:
The geopolitics of energy (production, trade and use): The shift towards renewables

Answer 12

• The shift to renewables will help fight climate change, and energy security by decentralising production and trade. This means geopolitics could decrease.
• EX: France moved to nuclear energy (70%), and decreased their need for Russian gas (unlike Germany and others).
• Even small scale energy production can now take place (private solar panels, small HEP machines, biomass burning, wind turbines subsidised by the govt).

However: these factors will only help to a limited extent. Tim Marshall says that this will shift the issues, not eliminate them.

• It will not be about the global market for the raw materials to make the renewable energy sources
• EX: Lithium from Chile and China, Cobalt from the DRC, Chinese solar cells and batteries and neodymium for wind turbines, and German tech.

Question 13

Energy security:
Sources of energy:

Answer 13

There are many sources of energy:

1. Fossil fuels (dead organisms buried over millions of years can be burnt in power plants to produce electricity, or oil can be refined to make fuel for vehicles).
2. Renewables: this comes from various infinite sources (wind, solar, HEP, geothermal, tidal can all be used to generate electricity)
3. Nuclear: energy is released by splitting uranium atoms – this produces heat that is used to generate electricity.
4. Biomass: This includes wood, plants and animal waste that is processed into biofuel, then burnt to produce steam turning turbines to generate electricity.

Question 14

Energy security:
Sources of energy: Primary and Secondary sources:

Answer 14

The sources of energy can be split into:
1. Primary sources: This is energy released from a direct source as it naturally occurs (e.g. burning coal to generate heat).

2. Secondary sources: When primary energy is converted, it becomes secondary energy (e.g., a thermal power plant, burns coal, generating heat, to then generate electricity).
   (In this case, the heat generated from the coal is the primary energy, and the secondary energy is the electricity generated from this primary heat).

Question 15

Energy security:
Sources of energy: The main components of demand for energy are:

Answer 15

1. Residential: using electricity and heating/lighting homes.
2. Industrial: manufacturing goods, running machines and light/heat for factories.
3. Agricultural: Energy is needed to heat greenhouses, and power farming equipment, vehicles and irrigation pumps.
4. Services: Buildings and services (hospitals, shops, banks) all need energy to power their buildings (heating and lighting).
5. Transport: Energy is needed to fuel vehicles to transport people and goods.

Question 16

Energy security:
Sources of energy: Energy mixes definition (and UK example):

Answer 16

Definition:
The energy mix of a country is the proportion of different sources of energy used by households and industry together with that used in electricity generation.

In the UK:
The energy mix has changed, from mainly coal, to then oil, and now mainly natural gas. Although, renewables are increasing.
UK figures 2015:
44% fossil fuels
35% renewables (28.9% wind, 4.5% solar, 1.7% HEP)
21% other energies (13.3% nuclear, 7.3% biomass)
10% imports (mainly from Netherlands/France/USA/ China).

Question 17

Energy security:
Sources of energy: Why energy mixes vary between countries:

Answer 17

1. Level of development (economic/technological)
2. Availability of primary energy sources within the country, including physical factors (e.g., UK wind or Iceland geothermal).
3. Factors affecting the import of primary energy sources – geopolitics and reliable trading partners or locational constraints (natural gas pipelines are expensive).
4. Government’s current policies – international treaties (Paris 2015), call to reduce reliance on nuclear energy after Fukushima disaster (perception of risk), or the need to diversify (Ukraine over-reliance on Russian gas) (links to geopolitics).
5. Inertia (scared of change) - current energy mix retained due to economic/technical issues (e.g., Poland continued reliance on coal).
6. Decreasing cost of renewable technologies (solar).

Question 18

Energy security:
Sources of energy: Examples of energy mixes in different countries
France (HIC):

Answer 18

France:

• They have almost no natural resources and import 99% of their oil (mainly from Norway).
• The oil crisis on 1973 drove them to switch to nuclear power (opening 59 power stations).
• HEP also is used in the Alps (producing 20% of the electricity).
• Nuclear power produces 70% of electricity, renewables 25% and non-renewables 5%.
• They continue to use nuclear so heavily as it is cleaner than oil/gas, and to avoid energy dependence on other nations (like Germany).
• They plan to move to 50% nuclear and increase the % of wind/solar (collaborating with Algeria) by 2035.

Question 19

Energy security:
Sources of energy: Examples of energy mixes in different countries
India (MIC):

Answer 19

India:

• They are a fast developing MIC, and due to their growth in consumption (by 3000% in 30 years), they have changed energy mixes. In 1973, it was 61% renewable fuelwood, but in 2005, it was 39% coal.
• Oil and gas are 68% of the mix now, as it becomes more available to the wealthier people.
• Their natural resources are depleting, and so they plan on developing renewables (like the Narmada Mega Dam - 3200 dams) to give 20 million people drinking water and HEP power.
• They had a $20 million World Bank investment which they are using to develop 20MW of solar power.
• They are not yet on the right track, due to their huge population and energy needs it is very hard to move to renewables, and so they still use a lot of coal, etc, to try and lift millions out of poverty.

Question 20

Energy security:
Sources of energy: Examples of energy mixes in different countries
Namibia (LIC):

Answer 20

Namibia:

• LIC, with its main industries as mining and agriculture (energy intensive).
• They have a low average energy consumption rate.
• They heavily rely on oil and gas imports from South Africa, and 50% of electricity is imported (they produce less than 1/3 of their own energy).
• Over 70% of households have electricity, but only 15% of rural houses.
• To reduce energy reliance, they plan to use coal reserves that have been identified there.
• They export uranium, and would like to use nuclear power, but this needs foreign assistance to start.
• They have a very high capacity for solar power, and offshore wind power, but investment is needed.
• They are taken advantage of in global energy trade, and are forced to use non-renewables.

Namibia figures 2015:
35% biomass and watts burning
30% oil/gas
20% HEP
15% other renewables (wind, solar)

Question 21

Energy security:
Relationship of energy supply to key aspects of physical geography:
(CUT OUT COURSE)

Answer 21

1. Climate:
   Renewables are affected by climate (wind, solar and HEP).
   Non-renewables are also affected (flooding of mines, or oil rigs damaged by storms).
2. Geology (affects fossil fuel supply):
   Coal (sedimentary rock), oil, natural gas (dead organisms in pores of impermeable rock) and shale gas are all geologically dependent to form.
3. Drainage:
   HEP is affected by the drainage being large and with a lot of volume, and steep.

Question 22

Energy Security:
Energy supplies in a globalising world: Competing national interests

Answer 22

1. Energy production and consumption are unevenly distributed, meaning that energy needs to be transferred between countries, increasing links between them, which contributes to globalisation.
2. Tech and comms advances mean trade is easier (containerisation, pipelines).
3. Energy resources are vital to country developments, so controlling them is important. So, countries have different priorities when trading energy.
   - Price: the selling country will want as much as possible, and the buyer as little. This influences markets and shows if the resource is economically viable for extraction.
   - Environment v development: many countries choose to exploit natural resources to develop, but this damages the environment. So, some nations like to exploit resources in other areas (China in Africa), or in the global commons (Norway/Iceland/Japan whaling in Antarctica). Global governing bodies can step in (Antarctic Treaties). However, as resources decrease, pressure to exploit more increases.
   - Energy security: countries with high energy consumption may pressure countries with large natural resources to develop and export them to meet energy needs (China in Africa).
   - Political instability: countries may avoid becoming dependent on countries with unstable govts, as conflict is more likely here.

Question 23

Energy Security:
Energy supplies in a globalising world: The role of TNCs

Answer 23

1. TNCs are involved in all stages of oil/gas production (exploration, refining and selling)
2. Due to their wealth and control of resources, they are very powerful and influence the global economy, politics and the environment. They choose their prices, and if one drops, it will start a ‘price war’ between TNCs.
3. Some energy TNCs are state-owned (Gazprom). They can also exert global influence, by shutting down private TNCs in that country, or building political connections (low prices to allies).

Question 24

Energy Security:
Energy supplies in a globalising world: The role of TNCs
EXAMPLES:

Answer 24

BP:

• Nation: UK
• Status: Private
• Environmental attitude: Has a whole department investing over $500million in biofuels and renewables.
• They are involved in oil and gas exploration and production worldwide, including in the UK, US, Egypt and Russia. In 2016, their daily production was over 3 million barrels of oil equivalent.
• They have refineries globally (Netherlands, UK, USA) and refined 1.7 barrels of OE in 2016.
• The products are sold to industry and individuals globally - BP has over 18,000 outlets.
• In total, they have proven reserves of over 17 billion barrels of OE.
• In 2010, the Deepwater Horizon BP oil rig exploded, killing 11 people and causing a huge oil spill, threatening the coast of Florida, Louisiana and Alabama.

Gazprom:

• Nation: Russia
• Status: 38% Russian govt owned, 52% Russian shareholders, 10% foreign shareholders.
• Environmental attitude: No real effort. They repaired some land they damaged (including in the Yamal peninsula), but not much else. Their main gas fields are on the Arctic shelf and the Yamal peninsula, so directly damaging the environment.
• It produces over 17% of the world’s natural gas.
• Their trade is done via the Nord Stream 1 and 2 pipelines.

Question 25

Energy Security:
Environmental impacts of a major energy resource development and associated distribution networks: Alberta Tar Sands

Answer 25

Definition: Tar Sands ‘are deposits of sand mixed with water and bitumen, which are refined and processed to create synthetic crude oil’.
- These tar sand sources (and their distribution networks) in Alberta are extremely damaging to the environment.

IMPACTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT:

• To justify the unconventional extraction and production techniques and risks, the scale of the project is huge.
• As these Canadian tar sand deposits are the largest deposits of oil outside of Saudi Arabia, it causes huge amounts of boreal forest to be dug up and destroyed, with wetlands drained and rivers diverted, due to their open-cast and in-situ mining techniques of extracting the tar sand deposits. These forests are home to many ecosystems and species. Half of Canada’s 600 bird species migrate there every year.
• When processing the tar sands, around 3 to 5 barrels of water must be used to produce 1 barrel of synthetic crude oil. This creates mass water wastage.
• Further, a lot of heat is needed to separate the tar sands, further releasing more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere on an industrial scale, creating more global warming.
• The waste material created from this refinement process is toxic and put into lakes called tailings ponds. These ponds can leak and contaminate local water supplies and food chains. These supplies are primarily used by indigenous populations, who have experienced increased rates of cancer due to these toxic materials.

IMPACTS OF DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS:

• With the USA being the main consumer of this tar sand oil, they have built the Keystone XL pipeline to distribute the oil from Alberta to the Gulf Coast.
• This pipeline has faced much opposition from people it will affect in the USA. People who will have this pipeline near to their land or property are afraid there will be increased pollution levels and possible oil leaks.
• In fact, the Keystone pipeline has already created two major oil leakages. One in 2017 in South Dakota where nearly 10,000 barrels worth of oil leaked into the local environment. Then, in 2019, 9,000 barrels worth of oil leaked into the Edinburg wetlands in North Dakota. These leakages cause huge environmental impacts, killing ecosystems and contaminating water sources and food chains.
• Crucially, this new pipeline will cut directly through the lands of Native American communities in Montana. This could lead to destruction of cultural heritage sites, endangerment of tribe members, damage to hunting and fishing resources, harm to tribal lands when there is an inevitable oil leak and intoxicating water and food supplies, causing increased disease levels in the tribe.

Question 26

Energy Security:
Sustainability issues with energy production, trade and consumption:
Acid Rain:

Answer 26

General: The production, consumption and trade of energy has lots of impacts on people and the environment. Some of these impact the ability of future generations to meet their needs, making current practices unsustainable.

Acid Rain:
- Burning fossil fuels or exhaust fumes release gases (SO2 NO2) which can dissolve in water vapour and fall as acid rain.
- This decreases sustainability by killing fish and other marine life and kills trees and other vegetation (leads to less biodiversity).
- It also reduces the nutrient content of the soils and contaminates them, meaning some species can’t grow (less biodiversity and damages the food chain).
- It corrodes rocks (limestone/sandstone), including buildings, meaning they must be fixed.
- It causes respiratory issues (bronchitis).
EX: Coal burning fumes from the UK blew to Scandinavia and contaminated their lakes (global scale).

Solutions:

• The use of catalytic convertors on cars to reduce exhaust fumes.
• Burning less fossil fuels and using renewables.
• Replacing coal power stations with nuclear power.
• The use of flue-gas desulphurisation after coal burning.
• Reducing the overall use of electricity and cars.

Question 27

Energy Security:
Sustainability issues with energy production, trade and consumption:
Enhanced greenhouse effect:

Answer 27

EGE:

• Burning fossil fuels or forests releases more GGs into the atmosphere. This is unsustainable as it increases the global temp and causes other changes to the climate.
• CO2 contributes 65% to the net warming by GGs, and this will increase around 1-2% a year. (As well as methane and nitrous oxides from vehicles and fertilisers).
• For example: changing rainfall patterns, sea level rise (ice sheets and sea ice melt, with positive albedo feedback loop), increased flooding, more frequent and severe extreme weather events (wildfires, hurricanes, typhoons, heatwaves, drought, creating climate refugees), habitat loss (loss of biodiversity and extinction), changing agriculture patterns and productivity decrease, less water availability. Also the positive feedback loop of permafrost.
• The biggest CO2 emitting nations are: China 27% of global emissions (10bn tonnes), USA 15% (6bn tonnes), EU 10% (3.5bn tonnes), India 6.8% (2.5bn tonnes).

Question 28

Energy Security:
Sustainability issues with energy production, trade and consumption:
Air pollution:

Answer 28

Air pollution:

• This is again caused by fossil fuel and exhaust fumes releasing poisonous gases (NO2/CO2) or Carbon monoxide.
• This pollutes the air and causes photochemical smog, respiratory illness, suffocation due to excess CO2 or death due to carbon monoxide exposure.

Question 29

Energy Security:
Sustainability issues with energy production, trade and consumption:
Nuclear waste:

Answer 29

Nuclear waste:
- The used fuel of nuclear plants is very radioactive. It can be recycled to recover the uranium, but most is just disposed of.
- High-level nuclear waste (used in plants) must be stored safely and carefully for 1000s of years, over 200m underground, in a geologically stable area near transport links and not locals.
- Any leaking into the environment can have long term negative effects (contamination of land and water, deaths of all species and vegetation).
- It needs to be buried underground, but this is expensive. It also creates tension with the locals near the sites, worried about long-term effects (on health, the environment and tourism).
- Most countries currently store the waste in temporary above-ground stores, as no underground stores are in use yet. This is unsustainable.
EX: In the UK, the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) are in charge, and they store our waste in above-ground steel and glass containers in Cumbria.
Thorp Plant at Sellafield (Cumbria) removes the reusable uranium and plutonium from the waste, for recycling.

Question 30

Energy Security:
Sustainability issues with energy production, trade and consumption:
Energy conservation:

Answer 30

Energy conservation:
Def: The prevention of the wasteful use of energy, esp to ensure its continuing availability.
- In peak times, there is more demand for electricity (Strictly), and there is too much demand for energy. It needs to be limited to save energy and not use it for wasteful purposes.
- Solutions: govt legislation to turn off heating in institutions (like supermarkets, airports, train stations, etc) in off-peak times, increased recycling, changes to renewables, outlaw air conditioning, etc.

Question 31

Energy Security:
Sustainability issues with energy production, trade and consumption:
Habitat destruction and biodiversity loss:

Answer 31

Habitat destruction and biodiversity loss:

• Deforestation means rainforest carbon stores are destroyed.
• Oil spills can occur (BP deepwater horizon spill 2010, and the Exxon Valdez spill 1989).
• Building pipelines through habitats and indigenous communities (Keystone XL pipeline) damages land, biodiversity, and can have an oil spill, making the water and food contaminated.
• Destroying land by digging it up (the Alberta tar sands) causes biodiversity loss - destruction of the boreal forests (caribou species, and over 600 bird species).
• This comes with the waste and pollution from tailings ponds, which impacts the water table, and makes the surrounding water and food carcinogenic, mainly used by animals and indigenous people.

Question 32

Water security:
Sources of water:

Answer 32

Sources of water:

1. Water can be extracted from the surface and underground sources. The process of removing water from its source is called abstraction.
2. Surface sources: rivers, lakes, melting glaciers, reservoirs (man-made lakes created by dams on rivers).
3. Fresh water can also be obtained by desalination of sea water (97% of water on earth is sea-water).
4. Underground sources: aquifers. These are areas of porous rock underground that are saturated with water. Water is pumped out of aquifers via deep boreholes drilled into the rock, and deposited into rivers, lakes or reservoirs for future use.

Question 33

Water security:
Components of demand:

Answer 33

People need water for:

1. Drinking, washing and sewage
2. Industries like farming (irrigation and raising livestock), manufacturing (heating metals, production of goods as a raw material like paper/textiles, cooling machinery), electricity generation (generating steam for turbines, HEP power).
3. Trade - waterways and oceans enable the transport of goods between places.

• Overall, irrigation is the main use of freshwater (70%)
• Industry and manufacturing uses 22% (inc electricity production).
• In LICs 82% is used in agriculture, compared to the 30% in HICs. Industry in LICs is only 10%, but 60% in HICs.
• HICs have the highest levels of domestic demand (USA and Australia the most), using it for leisure, high consumption and sanitation. Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest domestic use per capita.
• This high (and increasing) demand has meant aquifers are depleted, and water scarcity/stress occurs.

Question 34

Water security:
Water availability and demand:

Answer 34

The total water availability and demand per person varies globally.

Water availability:

• Some countries have lots of water available (South America where rainfall is high, Canada or New Zealand where rainfall is high and temperatures moderate/low to limit evaporation, Australia where there is enough wealth to invest in water supply schemes like desalination).
• Some countries have much lower water availability (Egypt with an arid climate and inadequate water treatment facilities).

Water demand:

• Some countries have high water demand (USA, Argentina have lots of farming/mining/industry that need a lot of water, Australia has high domestic use and lots of farming with high temps).
• Some countries have less water demand (Angola, Papua New Guinea have high water prices due to poor infrastructure, or Mongolia that have a nomadic lifestyle).

Global demand is rising because:

1. Population growth: more people means more water needed for drinking, washing, food, electricity, etc.
2. Economic development: as countries develop, energy use increases and manufacturing grows (these both use a lot of water). As more people can afford to buy more water, demand increases.

Question 35

Water security:
Water stress:

Answer 35

Definition: The difficulty of obtaining sources of freshwater for use during a year, resulting in further depletion and deterioration of available water resources. This leads to vulnerability to water scarcity.

• In 2014, 36 countries faced extreme levels of water stress (1.1bn people), mostly in LICs.
• The most at-risk areas are the Middle East, India, Central Asia, North Africa, China, Mexico, Australia.
• However, high levels of water stress don’t necessarily mean scarcity. Management and conservation strategies can be implemented to secure water supplies before scarcity is reached.
  EX: Singapore has a high potential for water stress (no lakes, rivers or aquifers and high demand), but it has implemented successful water management, with investment into tech, international agreements and responsible management. They have advanced rainwater capture systems (that contribute 20% of the overall supply), 40% imported from Malaysia, they reuse grey water for 30% and desalinate 10%.

Question 36

Water security:
Water scarcity/crisis:

Answer 36

Definition: Water scarcity is the point at which the combined demand for all water users cannot be fully satisfied, or when the quality is not good enough to use.

• This is a relative concept and can occur at any level of supply or demand.
• This is likely to happen in areas with high population densities and unreliable/low water supplies.
• This can be a socio-economic phenomenon (behaviours, poverty, etc), or the physical consequence of poor supply patterns (results of climate change, lack of rainfall, lack of pipelines, etc).
• Around 1.2bn people live in water scarcity, and it could displace between 25 and 700million people in semi-arid/arid areas in the future.
• Many nations with water scarcity lack the infrastructure to take water from rivers/aquifers/the sea.

EX: Areas of physical water scarcity: Mexico, North Africa, ME, SE Asia (could reach Spain, Turkey, Texas).
EX: Areas of economic water scarcity: Sub-Saharan Africa, Central America, Northern India and SE Asia.

Water Crisis:
This is the more extreme cases of water scarcity, where the demand is higher than the capacity of supply of a nation.
EX: Middle East, North Africa, SE Asia, India, Central Asia, Mexico are the nations with the highest risk of water crisis.

Question 37

Water security:
Relationship of water supply to physical geog:

Answer 37

The volume and quality of water available in areas depends on a range of physical factors:

1. Climate:
   - Most places rely on rainfall for their water supply. Areas with high rainfall generally have more reliable water supplies.
   - In hot climates or in summer months, lots of water is lost from lakes and rivers due to evapotranspiration, which causes water scarcity.
   - Summer precipitation levels recharge water sources less and so the ground is harder, discouraging infiltration.
   - Very high rainfall can overwhelm sewers and water treatment plants and can increase surface runoff from fields and urban areas - this can reduce water quality as it becomes more polluted.
   - Climate change also causes shifts. It is causing glaciers to recede, lower levels of stream and river flow, shrinking lakes. It also depletes aquifers and pollutes water supplies, meaning that farmers, industries and people need to find alternative water supplies.
2. Geology:
   - This determines the amount of water that can seek through into groundwater stores to become available through aquifers.
   - When rain falls on impermeable rock (clay) it can’t soak in, so it flows into rivers and lakes.
   - When rain falls on permeable rock (sandstone) it flows through them and can form aquifers (water is harder to extract from these, but can make water available in very dry places).
   - Some types of rock contain salts and minerals that dissolve into the water, sometimes making it unsustainable for drinking without lots treatment.
   - The topography of the land is also important, as areas with deep, narrow valleys are suitable for storage site as reservoirs that enable water to be transferred by gravity.
3. Drainage:
   - Drainage systems move water from one area to another, changing the distribution of water.
   - Large drainage basins cover more land, so are more likely to receive lots of rainfall, increasing water supply.
   - In some areas, drainage systems don’t have enough capacity to cope with heavy rainfall, causing sewage systems to overflow (which affects water quality).

It is also affected by human factors:

• Increased demand is reducing supplies (less in aquifers means less recharge of lakes/rivers, vegetation changes, lower water table, saltwater flows, drying of soils).
• Human activity like farming/industry pollutes water supplies (e.g. fertilisers in run-off from farms contaminates water).
• As water supply is reduced, the price of water increases, making it inaccessible for some people.

EX: The Thames Basin supplying to London.

• It is under severe water stress, as it supplies over 2.6billion litres to London (and increasing as population grows).
• Climate: quite dry and high EPOT, but high winter rainfall allows groundwater recharge.
• Geology: the chalk in the basin is significant as it allows groundwater recharge through infiltration, and boreholes to supply 1/3 of London’s water directly from aquifers.
• Drainage: It allows 20% of London’s water to move from other areas into the Thames basin to be used.

Question 38

Water security:
Sustainability issues with water management:
Virtual water trade:

Answer 38

Virtual water trade:
- Virtual water is the amount of water used in the production of something.
- When these products are traded, the virtual water used is also traded.
- Often, products with high virtual water are exported from countries with high water stress (e.g. India with textiles or rice).
- Countries can manage their water more sustainably by being aware of the virtual water they trade and consume.
- EX: Countries in the Middle East, where water stress/scarcity is common, will choose to act sustainably by importing products with high virtual water values as they need their water for other uses.
EX: 1 litre of coffee has 1,120litres of virtual water.

Question 39

Water security:
Sustainability issues with water management:
Recycling ‘greywater’

Answer 39

• *Recycling greywater:**
• This is the treatment of water to make it safe to reuse.
• Most recycled water is used for irrigation, industry, power plants and toilet flushing, though it can be treated and made safe to drink.
• This makes supplies more sustainable as it helps meet water demand without extracting more from rivers/groundwater.
• ‘Greywater’ is waste water from homes and businesses (e.g. showers/washing machines). This is quite clean water, so can be used for toilets, washing cars, watering plants, or irrigation without treatment.
• It increases sustainability and means water is not treated unnecessarily, saving energy.
• It is important though, that no toxic chemicals get into the greywater (from bleach, dye, detergents, etc).

Question 40

Water security:
Sustainability issues with water management:
Groundwater management:

Answer 40

• *Groundwater management:**
• This can be managed to make sure its quantity and quality are conserved.
• The amount being extracted can be monitored to ensure water is naturally replacing it, laws can be passed to prevent over-extraction.
• Farmers can be encouraged to apply less artificial fertilisers and pesticides to farmland, and companies that dump toxic waste are fined (reducing pollution of groundwater).
• In places where groundwater has been overexploited, aquifers can be artificially recharged. For example:
• By injection wells (piping water directly back into the ground).
• By infiltration structures (water-filled basins, ponds, trenches from which water infiltrates to the aquifer).
• By diverting rivers to areas of permeable rock.

Question 41

Water security:
Sustainability issues with water management:
Conservation and recycling:

Answer 41

• *Conservation:**
• Many large TNCs are reducing water usage through sustainability programmes (Kelloggs have saved 70% between 2009 and 2012). But, this is hard as many TNCs operate globally (Nestle with 700,000 farmers).
• People can take showers with water-efficient heads, having water-efficient toilets or a displacement bag. The UK govt banned the instillation of toilets that use more than 6 litres per flush. Using water-efficient washing machines/dishwashers.
• People can have a water meter fitted, encouraging them to use less (it is law to have one in the UK).
• Farmers can install drip pipes to direct the water to exactly where its needed, and collect storm water for irrigation.
• Farmers can also change their practices (by watering crops early to reduce EPOT, or contour ploughing to reduce run-off).
• *Recycling:**
• Nestle claims to recycle over 80% of the water it uses, mainly from rivers or lakes near their production factories.
• This can be done through recycling greywater
• Or desalination (Dubai desalinates 99% of their water, but this is very energy intensive).
• Water storage in reservoirs for when it is needed.
• Water catchment (setting up rainwater catchments on roofs, to stop it being waste on the ground).
• Water diversion and transfer (moving water from areas of water surplus to areas of deficit, through pipes, tunnels, canals, aqueducts. But, this is expensive.

Question 42

Mineral Security:

General aspects of mineral ore supply and demand:

Answer 42

• They are mined to produce metals, and make products.
• The distribution of ore minerals is uneven globally, and some are rarer than others.
• Production varies globally, depending on the size and accessibility of a country’s ore mineral reserves (including whether reserves have already been depleted), and whether a country can afford to extract deposits.
• Consumption also varies globally, depending on the wealth of a country and its major and its industries.
• There are huge disparities between where ores are produced and consumed, due to the global trade of minerals.
• EX: In 2016, the value of iron ore exports worldwide were over US$70bn. The biggest exporter was Australia (over 50%), and the biggest importer was China (over 70%, due to their industries).

Question 43

Mineral Security:

Case Study (Copper):

Sources and reserves of copper:

Answer 43

Deposits and sources:

• Copper is mainly extracted from copper ores such as chalcopyrite and bornite, as well as some deposits of pure copper.
• They are found all over the world (unevenly distributed).
• There are two different types of copper deposits:
  
  • Porphyry deposits are most common, and are found in igneous rocks at destructive plate margins, formed as magma that contains copper rises and then cools into crystallised porphyry rocks (copper sources).
  • Sedimentary rocks are when water is heated in the Earth’s crust, which then dissolve compounds of metals, including copper. The copper-rich water then flows through gaps in the rocks, and then cause cause chemical changes to the copper, as it solidifies in gaps of the rocks.
• There are very large concentrations of copper desposits down the west coast of North and South America, and across Europe and Asia.
• Latin America is the biggest producer (over half of copper reserves). In 2014, Chile was the biggest producer of copper globally, accounting for 31% of all copper mined. Peru was the next biggest. Only open-pit mining is economically viable in SA.
• Global copper production has increased by around 3% each year since 1900, with SA and Asia having the most increase. Chile and Peru invest into mines in order to continue producing enough copper to meet the demands of the major industrial nations (China and India mainly).
• Less developed regions are becoming more important, as more deposits are being discovered and exploited there (South-Central Africa, and SE Asia).

Why the reserves are exploited:

• Depends on:
  
  • Richness of the reserve: The more copper an ore contains, the less rock has to be mined to produce the same amount of copper. This means that richer deposits are more cost-efficient to extract.
  • Extent of the reserve: Whether there is enough copper to pay for the investment required to extract it (economic viability).
  • Ease of extraction: Reserves that are close to the surface are easier and cheaper to mine.
  • Location: If the ore is in a remote location, the cost of extraction is increased, as people, machinery and extracted ores have to be transported to and from the mine. If the nation is politically unstable, mining companies will be less willing to invest in projects there.

Richness and extent of the reserve can also influence the type of mining:

• Open-pit mining: surface material is removed before the ore is extracted layer by layer, leaving a hole. Open-pit mining is fairly cheap as its easy to mechanise and doesn’t need too much infrastructure.
• Deep mining: shafts and tunnels are dug underground to extract the ores. This is expensive, so only really done when the copper deposits are far below the surface, and too deep for open-pit mining. The reserves also need to contain enough copper to make the extra investment worthwhile.
• EX: As rich extensive deposits decrease as mining continues, companies are starting to make deep mines under the original open-pit mines. This is generally low-grade copper.

Question 44

Mineral Security:

Case Study (Copper):

End uses of copper, and components for demand:

Answer 44

End uses of copper:

• Copper is very versatile because of its properties - it is a good conductor of electricity and heat, it can be precisely bent or moulded into shape (malleable and ductile), is resistant to corrosion and antimicrobial (useful in cooking equipment).
• It can be combined with other meals to make alloys (e.g. brass or bronze). These are necessary for a reasonable standard of living.
• It is used in building construction (pipes, roofing, etc), power generation and transmission (electrical wiring), electronic product manufacturing (cookware), and the production of industrial machinery and transport vehicles and networks (overhead railway and tram lines, as well as the motors, wiring, radiators, connectors, brakes and bearings using in cars). Electronic vehicles contain 4x more copper than normal cars. As well as coins.
• The use of copper in wiring and plumbing (taps, valves and fittings) are integral to the appliances, heating and cooling systems, and telecoms links used every day in homes/businesses. It also makes the wires that enable the internet to work (HDSL), high-speed data transmission, phone calls, etc.
• It is also used for building facades, canopies, doors and window frames due to its aesthetic appeal.

Components for demand:

• The main industries of copper are:
  
  • Electronic goods (38%), construction (30%), industrial equipment (10%), transport (10%), household appliances (10%).
• It is crucial to the national economies of mature, newly developed and developing nations. Mining, processing, recycling and the transformation of metals into a multitude of products creates jobs and wealth. This contributes to building and maintaining a country’s infrastructure and creates trade and investment opportunities. Copper will continue to development in the future.
• Copper is also one of the most recycled metals, which makes them more economically viable. This extends the efficiency of the metal, saves energy and gives us a sustainable source of metal (it is of the same quality after recycling). Over 35% of copper in use now has been recycled.
• There is also a large supply of copper, estimated at 830million tonnes of reserves, and over 3,000Mts of undiscovered resources.
• In 2015, the global demand was around 21Mts, so both mining and recycling was needed.
• The main consumers are the MICs manufacturing nations (China, India).

Question 45

Mineral Security:

Case Study (Copper):

Role of copper in global commerce and industry:

Answer 45

Industry:

• Copper is used in almost every industry (construction, transport, electricity distribution, etc).
• Copper related industries (mining, processing and manufacturing copper products) can be major contributors to a country’s economy.
• EX: In 2013, the copper industry accounted for 20% of Chile’s economy.
• Industries are expanding as countries develop, so demand for copper is increasing.
• Any decrease in availability or distribution to supply would damage industry and countries’ development.

Commerce:

• There is a large global trade of copper in many forms (ores, part-refined copper, refined copper or used copper for recycling).
• Most copper traded each year is in the form of refined copper (around 8 million tonnes of refined copper was exported by producing nations like Chile, Russia, Japan in 2015, and then consuming nations like China, Germany and the USA imported the most in 2015).
• Supply and demand of copper affects its price (if demand falls, then price also decreases). This happened between 2011 and 2016, when an over-supply of copper, combined with the GFC 2008, caused copper prices to halve.
• Because copper is so important to many industries, and used globally in large proportions, its price is often used to indicate how healthy the global economy is.
• Demand for copper will surge over the next 5 years due to China’s global lending programme. Their Belt and Road Initiative will generate spending of around $1.3trillion on infrastructure projects by 2023, driving an additional 1.6m tonnes of copper demand. This will be a 7% increase in global demand.

Question 46

Mineral Security:

Case Study (Copper):

Environmental impacts of a major copper extraction scheme, and associated distribution networks: The Kennecott Bingham Canyon Mine, Utah USA.

Answer 46

The Kennecott Bingham Canyon Mine, Utah USA:

• Extraction scheme:
• This is an open-pit mine in Utah, and is the largest in North America (2,700 acres). It is owned by the Rio Tinto company.
• Almost 6bn tonnes of rock have been removed from the pit.
• It is the 2nd most polluting mine in the US by toxic releases. The North zone is proposed for listing as one of the US’s most significant hazardous waste sites.
• Mining activities have resulted in damage to fish and wildlife habitats, extensive water pollution and public health and safety risks. The mine and its expansion plans are a threat to air quality too.
• Damage to fish and wildlife:
  
  • It is close to the Great Salt Lake, which is a significant migratory bird habitat. In 2008, the US govt took legal action against the mine due to releases of hazardous chemicals from the mine into the lake. (Around ¼ of Selenium in the Lake is from the mine).
  • It has harmed natural resources, birds, ecosystems, wetlands, marshes, freshwater, wildlife habitats and freshwater ponds. Also, the groundwater pollution released has damaged fish and wildlife habitats too.
• South zone groundwater contamination plume:
  
  • Mining activities there have caused a lot of groundwater pollution. Wastewater from the mine and tailings ponds have escaped the site’s collection systems, which contaminates the groundwater with acid, metal and sulphates. It makes the water of 1000s of Salt Lake City residents undrinkable.
  • The plume was caused by metal and acid rich water being channelled through a reservoir, which the mine operated without a filter for nearly 30 years.
• Tailings containment threatens the community of Magna:
  
  • Since 1988, the mine has been covering up reports showing that the tailings dam that overshadows the town of Magna is at high risk of collapse in an EQ.
  • They kept making it more at-risk, and decided that the legal costs of compensation for law breaking and human deaths and property damage was less expensive than moving the tailings dam.
• Landslides:
  
  • In April 2013, a landslide occurred at the mine. It was the biggest non-volcanic landslide in the history of NA. Around 70 million cubic metres of dirt and rock fell down the pit.
  • Due to a warning system, no deaths occurred.

Distribution networks:

• The mine networks of distribution for the mine, are the roads, airport and rail lines around the mine and Salt Lake City. They carry the slurry from the mine to the factories to be refined by road, in huge slurry carriers. This leads to habitat destruction and fossil fuel use.
• The vehicles, planes and ships used to transport the copper to consumers, and the waste to landfills. This contributes to global warming by using fossil fuels, and leads to the habitat destruction from the landfills, as well as water and air pollution.

Question 47

Mineral Security:

Case Study (Copper):

Sustainability issues of copper extraction, trade and processing:

Answer 47

• Extraction:
  
  • As the ores that contain the most copper are generally mined first, they run out first too. This means that the companies have to mine larger amounts of ore to extract the same amount of copper, so the cost of extraction is higher, more waste is produced and the environmental impact increases.
  • Open pits take up huge land areas, destroying habitats and reducing biodiversity and creating visual, noise and air pollution. But, many countries require mining companies to restore the landscape when mining is finished. This can also lead to landslides as waste is disposed of ineffectively.
  • Exposed rock continues to react with the air and water to produce acid for 100s of years - continued management of mines is necessary even after mining is finished, in order to limit environmental damage.
  • Spills and leaks of toxic substances can contaminate local water supplies. Metals don’t break down so this leads to long-term pollution of streams and rivers, threatening water security in the area.
  • The influx of people seeking employment at copper mines can put pressure on existing local services like doctors and schools. Once mines close down, settlements can be abandoned and communities broken up.
• Processing:
  
  • To extract copper from its ore, the ore is crushed, dissolved in acid, filtered and smelted. This produces large amounts of contaminated waste water. This goes into tailings ponds, but may be washed into local water streams by rainfall, affecting ecosystems and human health.
  • Processing copper uses lots of water, but many plants are in dry areas. One solution is to pump seawater to the plants. However, the construction of pipelines to carry water can disrupt ecosystems in the coastal area where the pipe begins, and along its length. Water is often pumped uphill, which uses lots of energy - this is expensive and have environmental impacts. Leaks of saltwater can also be toxic to plants. The contamination of the water can also increase turbidity, blocking sunlight for marine ecosystems.
  • Smelting releases sulphur dioxide, contributing to acid rain, which kills vegetation and aquatic life.
• Trade:
  
  • Countries whose economies rely on the copper trade can be hit hard by reductions in copper prices.
  • EX: Zambia copper prices fell by 20% in 2015, mostly due to a fall in Chinese demand. Zambia’s overall economic growth rate in 2015 was half of that in 2014.
  • This is why countries are willing to destroy their environment for the copper.
  • Price fluctuations affect investment - if copper prices fall, companies are unwilling to search for new reserves or to invest in the infrastructure needed to extract the copper. This could mean that there is not enough copper extracted to meet demand.

Question 48

Resource futures:

Energy futures:

Answer 48

The future of energy is uncertain:

• Energy supplies will be put under increasing pressure in the future, as population growth and economic development increases demand for it. The supply will need to increase to match it.
• We still depend on fossil fuels for energy, but this is likely to change:
  
  • Depletion: fossil fuels are finite stock resources, that will deplete. The rate of this will depend on the rate at which they continue to be exploited, and how many new resources are discovered. Oil and gas have the most depleted reserves, so their production is expected to decline first, while coal will continue to be used for longer.
  • Environmental impact: as climate change, air pollution and ocean acidification worsens, individuals and govts may take more action to reduce fossil fuel usage.
• Alternative energy sources will need to make up for the reduction of energy from fossil fuels. It will also become more and more important to decrease energy consumption per capita.
• There could be shortages if energy supplies don’t increase or consumption isn’t reduced. This could reduce standard of living, limit economic development and lead to conflict.
• The European move away from Russian gas means new futures elsewhere (Boris meeting with the Saudi King for oil).
• Energy issues promotes more innovation/domestic drive for energy security, to be more green and meet climate objectives.
• Technological:
  
  • Improving traditional renewable energy sources - making wind turbines more aerodynamic and creating transparent solar panels that can be used as windows) would increase their efficiency so more energy would be generated. More battery storage is need for solar power efficiency.
  • Developing new renewable sources - some Indian villages use rice husks to generate electricity in local power plants.
  • Improving nuclear power - nuclear reactors are becoming smaller, cheaper, safer and more efficient.
  • Reducing energy consumption - developing more energy-efficient appliances and vehicles.
  • Developing fracking - allowing in the US now, but not in the UK. It is effective for getting natural gas domestically and decreases energy security, but also damages the environment, creates EQs, contaminates water and pollutes the air.
• Economic:
  
  • Energy costs - energy costs may rise as unconventional fossil fuels are used. This could lead to fuel poverty, where people can’t afford to heat their homes, etc. Higher costs also affect industry, stopping economic development of LICs/MICs.
  • Carbon markets - countries have to pay for their carbon emissions. Prices may increase to make the use of renewable sources more attractive.
• Political:
  
  • Instability and conflict - most remaining conventional supplies of fossil fuels are located in the ME, Russia, Central Asia, etc. These are politically unstable regions and conflict could arise and cause rapid supply shortages and price shocks.
  • The global commons - countries bordering the Arctic and energy TNCs are arguing over rights to drill for oil in the Arctic, one of the last large reserves.
• Environmental:
  
  • Public opinion - increasing environmental awareness may put pressure on govts and TNCs to develop and use more green energy sources.
  • Climate change - the Paris accord 2015 is a global climate deal that aims to reduce global emissions (inc carbon taxes). This may change the global energy mix and force companies to use greener energy and more efficient tech.

Question 49

Resource futures:

Water futures:

Answer 49

Water stress will increase in the future:

• Current water use is not sustainable - excessive withdrawal has led to severe depletion of freshwater supplies. (Many aquifers have had so much freshwater removed that they are now filled with sea water).
• Water stress is expected to increase as the availability of water decreases and demand increases:
  
  • Demand is likely to exceed the current supply by 40% by 2030.
  • Its predicted that by 2050, around 2.5million people will be living in areas of water scarcity.
  • Water stress is likely to be most severe in the ME, west USA, Australia and sub-saharan Africa.
• Increased stress would lead to problems for people:
  
  • Insufficient drinking water is a threat to human life - where water is scarce, supplies of water become polluted (by sewage, etc), leading to disease/death.
  • A lack of irrigation limits food production, leading to reduced incomes and malnutrition.
  • Competition over remaining water is likely to cause more conflict.
• Technological:
  
  • Increasing supply - improvements to desalination (using graphite oxide as filters), may mean that freshwater can be obtained from seawater cheaper than at present and with less energy use.
  • Appropriate tech - in arid countries like Kenya, sand dams can be used on rivers to trap water, making it available all year.
  • Reducing water waste - nanotechnology could be used to purify polluted water, allowing more to be recycled. Smart monitoring of distribution networks could catch leaks early so less water is wasted.
• Economic:
  
  • More economically developed nations use more water per person, meaning that as more nations develop, global water demand increases.
  • However, as nations develop, they will also be able to afford the tech and infrastructure to obtain more water and deliver it to where its needed, so more have reliable access.
• Political:
  
  • Co-operation - nations with abundant water supplies can help nations with shortages. There can be agreements between nations that withdraw water from the same source, regulating how much each takes, to make it sustainable and peaceful.
  • Policies - govt policy can encourage people to use less water, (e.g. water meter installation could be compulsory, so people have to pay for the water they use).
• Environmental:
  
  • Climate change - dry areas are likely to become drier and wet areas wetter. Water management strategies will need to take this into account. However, the global efforts to minimise climate change may help to limit its impacts on water supply.
  • Integrated catchment management - looking at all aspects of a river catchment (geology, ecology and land use) can help to ensure that water supply and use are sustainable.

Question 50

Resource futures:

Ore minerals:

Answer 50

Reserves may be depleted in the future:

• The availability/supply of minerals will gradually decrease as more reserves are used, and demand will increase as population and industry grows.
• Rising economic development globally will put pressure pn mineral reserves. As countries develop they use more minerals for infrastructure, transport, and consumer goods. EX: access to electricity for developing nations over time, will increase mineral demand.
• A group of 17 metals called the Rare Earth Elements are important for the future. They are used in a huge number of items like mobile phones, computers, catalytic convertors, electric cars, etc. As modern tech increases, demand for REE increases, but they rarely occur in large enough concentrations to be economically viable to mine.

The resource future:

• Technological:
  
  • Exploration: strategies for finding minerals are improving (using remote sensing/satellite imagery, 3D imaging, seismic surveys, magnetometry to measure irons, gravimetry to discover REEs). However, an increase in the number of mines will have an environmental impact.
  • Extraction: more efficient machinery and developments in robotics could allow minerals to be extracted more quickly and efficiently (e.g. using driverless vehicles). Phytomining is when plants are grown to absorb copper compounds from the soils, then burnt to extract the copper. This can allow low-grade ores to be exploited.
  • Deep sea mining is also being developed by tech advances (see next page).
• Economic:
  
  • If supply falls or demand increases, price will increase. This will increase the price of goods, and may hinder some countries’ economic development if they can’t afford the minerals they need.
  • Recycling of minerals is sometimes limited by cost, but it may become more common as ore reserves are depleted.
  • Some mineral reserves have not yet been exploited for economic reasons. However, as more accessible reserves are depleted, it may be necessary to invest in mineral extraction at more difficult sites.
  • Due to more recycling of minerals recently, there are large supplies of poor quality metals.
• Political:
  
  • It is likely that new mining projects will spread to the emerging markets of SA and Africa, that will depend on western and asian TNC FDI, that will make these nations less secure and more dependent.
  • Conflict over ore minerals can increase, and the search for new reserves will become more politicised as demand increases and supply decreases.
  • Govts and TNCs are being forced to recognise the rights of indigenous people in the development of new mines.
  • EX: uprisings and strikes by locals over the impacts of the Santa Ana mine in Peru led to the mine’s closure. This can impact on the supply and cost of resources.
  • Antarctica is also a huge area of mineral reserves, but mining there is currently banned by the Antarctic Treaty System and the UN until 2048. However, there are fears that once supply gets too low, Antarctica will begin to open up to mining and damage the environment. Russia and China are particularly keen to mine there sooner than 2048.
• Environmental:
  
  • Resource frontiers: depleting resources may mean that the resource frontiers are exploited. This could have environmental impacts (deep sea mining could interrupt ecosystems and pollute oceans).
  • Fragile environments: environmentally sensitive areas are being exploited (China is investing in mining operations in Tibet). This has led to the degradation of the local environment, and is negatively impacts people’s quality of life.
  • There may be conflicts between TNCs and govts pushing for economic development and environmental groups that are concerned about the impacts of mining.

Question 51

Resource futures:

Ore minerals:

Deep Sea Mining (example):

Answer 51

• Technological:
  
  • They use advanced machinery that can handle the water pressure, to cut off the top of the polymetallic nodules on the sea bed to extract the minerals.
  • Molecules that live on the nodules can help with medicine creation.
• Economical:
  
  • Nauru needs an economic outlet, and TNCs say that it is economically viable to mine in Nauru to create batteries for electric vehicles or wind turbines. To make transport/energy sustainable, this is needed.
  • It damages the fishing and tourism industries for the islanders.
  • Many of the biggest TNCs involved have joined WWF and asked for a moratorium until more is known about the projects.
• Political:
  
  • It is in Nauru as they have large resources. Nauru are partnering with a Canadian TNC, creating a dependency of Nauru on the TNC.
  • The International Seabed Authority (UN dept) has a year to deny or allow Nauru.
  • So far, the ISBA has a 100% acceptance rate for applications. They are likely to allow Nauru.
  • Western powers are unlikely to stop it as the politicians have vested interests in allowing it to happen (iron triangles).
• Environmental:
• We could destroy the deep sea before we know more about it.
• There are REE in the nodules on the seabed.
• Wildlife is damaged (dumbo octopi), as it kicks up sand and sediment plumes. The noise and sand affects the animals.