Human Relationships Studies Flashcards
Discuss the formation of personal relationships
Markey & Markey (2007) and Zajonc (1968)
Discuss the role of communication in personal relationships
Bradbury and Fincham (1992) and Gottman (1994)
Discuss explanations for why relationships change or end
Gottman (1994) and Felmlee (1995)
Discuss a biological approach to personal relationships
Fisher et al (2005) and Wedekind et al. (1995)
Discuss a cognitive approach to personal relationships
Markey & Markey (2007) and Bradbury and Fincham (1992)
Discuss a sociocultural approach to personal relationships
Zajonc (1968) and Buss (1989)
Discuss one or more methods used in the study of personal relationships
Bradbury and Fincham (1992) and Gottman (1994)
Discuss ethical considerations in the study of personal relationships
Bradbury and Fincham (1992) and Gottman (1994)
Markey & Markey (2007)
Theory: Similarity-Attraction Model: People like and are attracted to others who are similar, rather than dissimilar to themselves. (ex: age, personality, religion)
Aim: Investigate the extent of similarity as a factor in choosing a partner
Participants: Large self-selected sample of undergraduate students
Procedure:
1. The questionnaire asked participants to describe the psychological characteristics, values, and attitudes of their ideal romantic partner
2. Afterwards, they were asked to describe themselves
Results:
Participants’ descriptions of themselves were similar to what they sought in their ideal partner.
Strength
1. Reliability: Large sample
Limitation
1. Demand Characteristics: Self-report questionnaires
2. Low generalizability: Only undergraduate students
Zajonc (1968)
Mere-Exposure Effect: People tend to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar with them. The more frequently we are exposed to something, the more we like it.
Aim: If people report a greater likeability of people to who they have been exposed numerous times
Participants: Michigan State University Seniors
Procedure:
1. In an experiment, the participants were told that they were taking part in a study of “visual memory.”
2. The participants were shown each photo for 2s
3. The faces were shown with different rates of frequency to different groups
4. Each time that they saw a photo, they were asked to rate how much they would like the man on a 7-point scale
Results:
1. When the participants were exposed to an image more frequently, their likeability rating of that person was significantly greater than when only seen once
Strengths:
1. Controlled Conditions: Reduces extraneous variables, observing the relationship
Limitations:
1. Low eco validity: Doesn’t reflect real-world interactions (ex: mannerisms, personality)
2. Deception: Ethical concern and can cause demand characteristics as participants try to guess the experiment
Bradbury and Fincham (1992)
Relationship-enhancing patterns: Happy couples don’t blame their partner or assume that the partner did things “on purpose.
Distress-maintaining pattern: Unhappy couples blame their partners for what happens and don’t give them credit for positive events.
Aim: Role of communication in relationships, researchers looked at causal attributions (why is there a problem) and responsibility attributions (whose fault is it?).
Participants: 47 couples who completed marital satisfaction survey
Procedure:
1. In an observational study, the couple was asked to individually fill in a questionnaire to determine the greatest problems in their marriage
2. Researchers chose a common problem from the questionnaires and asked each participant about the cause and who was responsible for the problem. They were also asked about a problem identified in their questionnaire, which their spouse did not identify as a problem.
3. They were then brought together and told to discuss a solution to the problem that they had both identified. The observation was video-recorded
4. Three trained researchers independently coded the videotape to identify relationship-enhancing and distress-maintaining communication patterns.
Results:
1. Couples that reported lower levels of marital satisfaction had more frequent distress-maintaining communication patterns
2. The interaction between such couples was rated as more hostile and rejecting of the partner’s positive approaches.
Strengths:
1. Researcher triangulation: coding the observation increasing reliability
Limitations:
1. Cross-sectional design: Can’t observe changes over time
2. Order effects: Doing questionnaire before interview means participants can predict
Gottman (1994)
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: The 4 traits that lead to the break-up of relationships: criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling.
Aim: If communication patterns as well as micro-expressions can predict divorce
Participants: 200 couples
Procedure:
1. Interviewed and observed couples having a low-conflict conversation and then a high-conflict conversation in his laboratory.
2. He measured physiological factors like their heart rate, blood pressure, and skin galvanization. He also recorded the interactions.
Results:
1. He found that it is primarily our state of arousal that occurs during the conflict - when our heartbeat exceeds 100 beats per minute - and our oral communication which is predictive of a failing relationship.
2. Signs of bad communication included the four horsemen (criticism, defensiveness, contempt, stonewalling).
Strengths:
1. Triangulation
2. Large sample
Limitations:
1. Demand characteristics since recorded
2. Bidirectional ambiguity; is it communication style that determines the quality of the relationship
Felmlee (1995)
Fatal Attraction Theory: What attracted us to our partner in the first place may be the reason why it ends
Aim: Investigate if initial reason for attraction is the reason why the relationship would end.
Participants: 301 university students, both male and female
Procedure:
1. In an open interview, participants were asked to think about their most recent ended relationship
2. Asked to then listed the qualities that attracted them to their former partner
3. Asked which qualities of their partner led to the breakup
Results:
1. 88 cases, the initially attractive trait caused split.
2. Identified 3 common fatal attraction patterns
a) Fun –> foolish
b) strong –> domineering
c) Spontaneous –> unpredictable
Strengths:
1. Supported by fatal attraction theory
Limitations:
1. Sampling bias: Only used university students
2. Self-reported Data
Fisher et al (2005)
Serotonin: Neurotransmitter controls mood, associated with obsessive thinking and emotional highs seen in the early stages of love
Aim: Investigate the specific neural mechanisms associated with romantic love
Participants: 10 females and 7 males, intensely in love for an average of 7.4 months
Procedure:
1. In a lab experiment using fMRI, semi-structured interview conducted to establish duration and intensity of romantic feelings
2. Completed the Passionate Love Scale that used Likert scale to measure traits associated with love
3. Scanned as they looked at a photograph of their beloved for 30 seconds
4. Completed a filler task
5. Scanned as they looked at a neutral photograph for 30 seconds
6. Repeated 6 times
Results:
1. High in areas with high levels of dopamine neurons
Strengths:
1. Triangulation: Using interview data and fMRI data
2. Reduce Bias: Because of fMRI
Limitations:
1. Low ecological validity: Lab setting
2. Low generalizability: small sample
Wedekind et al. (1995)
MHC: Group of genes that enables the immune system to recognise pathogens. The more diverse the MHC genes of parents, the stronger the immune system of offspring. It also affects the individual’s smell.
Aim: If women are attracted to men because of their MHC genes
Participants: 49 Females and 44 Males from the University of Switzerland
Procedure:
1. Categorised based on MHC genes
2. In a lab experiment, men were asked to wear a t-shirt for 2 nights (kept in plastic in the day), given perfume-free detergent and soaps and were instructed to rain from activities that may alter their smell
3. 2 days later, the woman was asked to rank from 1-10 the smell of 7 shirts in a cardboard box with a “smelling hole” (women were on their 2nd week of menstruation = heightened smell senses)
3 contained shirts from MHC similar men
3 contained shirts from MHC dissimilar men
1 contained unworn T-shirt (control)
Results:
1. Scored MHC dissimilar men’s body order as more pleasant
Strengths:
1. Double-blind experiment: Minimise demand characteristics increasing validity
Limitations:
1. Reductionist
2. Low generalisability: Participants were similar in age and culture
Buss (1989)
Men and women may have different goals when choosing a mate. Men look for a woman with “high reproductive value.” This is determined by their physical looks. Women look for men who would provide for offspring.
Aim: To test three evolution-based assumptions about human mate selection in a large cross-cultural sample
1.Men want women with high reproductive value so favor youth and physical appearance
2. Men value chastity of woman
3. Women want men who will invest in their offspring so favor a man with the resources he can provide
Sample: 37 samples taken from 33 countries
Procedure:
1. First Survey: biographical data and what age they preferred to marry, preferred age gap, who should be older, and how many children they want. They were then asked to rate 18 characteristics using a four-point scale.
2. Did second survey: participants rank 13 characteristics in terms of desirability in a mate.
(survey’s were in participants language and back-translated)
Results:
1. 34/37 samples, male valued physical attractiveness more than females do
2. 23/ 37 samples, men valued chastity.
2. 36/37 samples, women valued “good financial prospects” more than males
3. All samples, men preferred younger mates, with an average of 24.83 (close to the age of peak female fertility).
Strengths:
1. Parallel forms reliability: Same responses given on 2 different forms of a survey or test
Limitations:
1. Temporal validity: Zhang 2019 study did not reach same conclusion
2. Underrepresentation of rural groups
