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Biomedical Sciences > Human Physiology > Flashcards

Human Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

What is an antidiuretic?

A

Stops you weeing

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2
Q

What is vasopressin?

A

Antidiuretic hormone which makes the tubular wall more permeable to water for greater water reabsorption

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3
Q

Where is vasopressin made and stored?

A

It is made in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary gland

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4
Q

What is a diuretic?

A

Makes you wee

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5
Q

What is plasma clearance?

A

Volume of plasma completely cleared of a substance by the kidneys per minute (ml/min)

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6
Q

What is the equation for plasma clearance?

A

Plasma clearance (ml/min) = urine conc per ml x urine flow (ml/min)/plasma conc per ml

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7
Q

When does plasma clearance = gfr

A

When the substance is freely filtered and not reabsorbed e.g. Creatine and insulin

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8
Q

What substance is used to estimate gfr?

A

Creatine since it is freely filtered and not reabsorbed

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9
Q

What is not filtered out by the glomerulus?

A

Plasma proteins

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10
Q

What 3 layers does a substance pass through to be filtered by the glomerulus?

A

Glomerular capillary wall
Basement membrane (acellular)
Inner layer of the bowman’s capsule

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11
Q

What is the name of an arteriole leading to somewhere?

A

Afferent arteriole

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12
Q

What is the name of an arteriole leading away from somewhere?

A

Efferent arteriole

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13
Q

What forces are involved in glomerular filtration?

A

Glomerular capillary blood presure

Plasma colloid osmotic pressure

Bowman’s capsule hydrostatic pressure

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14
Q

What is net filtration pressure?

A

Forces favouring filtration - forces opposing filtration

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15
Q

What is GFR?

A

Glomerular filtration rate. Amount of fluid filtered through the glomerulus per min. Ml/min. Usually 125ml/min

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16
Q

What is GFR usually?

A

125ml/min

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17
Q

What does GFR depend on?

A

Net filtration

Glomerular surface area

Glomerular permeability

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18
Q

What is the equation for GFR?

A

GFR = net filtration x glomerular surface area

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19
Q

How are changes in blood pressure regulated in the glomerulus?

A

Increase BP = afferent arteriole vasoconstriction (less blood to glomerulus)

Decrease BP = afferent arteriole vasodilation (more blood to glomerulus)

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20
Q

What is filtered load?

A

Amount of a substance filtered from the glomerulus per minute (mg/min)

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21
Q

What is Tm?

A

Max amount of a substance that can be reabsorbed by the tubule per minute. Mg/min.

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22
Q

What is the equation for filtered load?

A

Plasma conc x gfr

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23
Q

What is Tm limited by?

A

The number of carriers present in the tubule membrane

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24
Q

Equation for excretion of a substance?

A

Filtered load - Tm

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25
Q

What is an exocrine gland?

A

Secretes a substance onto epithelia via a duct

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26
Q

What is an endocrine gland?

A

Secretes hormone into the blood (no duct)

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27
Q

What are 7 functions of the kidney?

A

Excretion of metabolic waste products and foreign chemicals

Regulation of water and electrolyte levels

Regulation of acid/base levels

Regulation of arterial blood pressure

Regulation of rbc production

Secretion, metabolism and excretion of hormones (epo)

Gluconeogenesis

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28
Q

Which blood vessels supply nephrons?

A

Arcuate arteries

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29
Q

Which blood vessel supplies the glomerulus?

A

Afferent arteriole

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30
Q

What does the efferent arteriole in a nephron do?

A

Carries blood from the glomerulus to the peritubular capillaries

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31
Q

What are the 2 capillary beds in a nephron?

A

The glomerulus and the peritubular capillaries

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32
Q

Where are the peritubular capillaries found?

A

Around the loop of henle

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33
Q

How many nephrons in a kidney?

A

800,000 - 1,000,000

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34
Q

Can nephrons be regenerated?

A

No

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35
Q

What are the 5 barriers that must be crossed in reabsorption?

A 
Luminal cell membrane
Cytosol
Basolateral cell membrane
Intersitial fluid
Capillary wall
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36
Q

What % of Na reabsorption takes place in the proximal tubule?

A

67%

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37
Q

What percentage of Na reabsorption takes place in the loop of henle?

A

25%

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38
Q

What percentage of Na reabsorption takes place in the distal and collecting tubules?

A

8%

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39
Q

Which substance promotes Na reabsorption?

A

Aldosterone

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40
Q

Which substances inhibit Na reabsorption?

A

Atrial natriuretic peptide

Brain natriuretic peptide

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41
Q

What secretes aldosterone?

A

Adrenal cortex

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42
Q

What secretes renin?

A

Kidney

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43
Q

Which enzyme cleaves angiotensin 1 (10 aa) to angiotensin 2 (8aa)?

A

ACE

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44
Q

Where are natriuertic peptides stored?

A

Granules in the atria and ventricles

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45
Q

Do endocrine glands have ducts?

A

No

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46
Q

What are the 2 hormone groups?

A

Hydrophilic (peptides and catecholamines)

Lipophilic (steroid hormones and thyroid hormones)

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47
Q

What are the 7 major endocrine glands?

A 
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thyroid
Parathyroid 
Adrenal gland
Pancreas
Ovaries/testes
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48
Q

Which type of hormone can cross cell membranes?

A

Lipophilic hormones (steroids and thyroid hormones)

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49
Q

Which hormones have extracellular receptors?

A

Hydrophilic hormones (peptides and catecholamines)

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50
Q

What 5 things does aldosterone do?

A

Increases sodium potassium atpase channels on basolateral membrane

Increases sodium/chloride symporters on apical membrane

Increases Enac channels on apical membrane

Increases Enac activity by activating protein kinases

Increases Enac activity by activating prostatin which cleaves Enac precursors

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51
Q

How do steroid hormones travel in the blood?

A

Attached to carrier proteins

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52
Q

Which type of hormone is stored?

A

Peptide hormones

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53
Q

Which type of hormone is made on demand?

A

Steroid

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54
Q

Which type of hormone is broken down faster?

A

Peptide

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55
Q

What is the half life of peptide hormones?

A

Minutes

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56
Q

What is the half life of steroid hormones?

A

Hours

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57
Q

How long do the effects of peptide hormones last?

A

Minutes to hours

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58
Q

How long do the effects of steroid hormones last?

A

Hours to days

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59
Q

What connects the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland?

A

Infundibulum

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60
Q

What is permissiveness in terms of hormone control?

A

Where presence of one hormone is needed for another hormone to exert its full effect on target cells

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61
Q

Give an example of permissiveness

A

Thyroid hormone increases the effect of adrenaline on the liver and heart

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62
Q

What is synergism in terms of hormone control?

A

Several hormones combine to produce an effect greater than the sum of all their individual effects

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63
Q

Give an example of synergism?

A

Testosterone requires FSH for normal sperm production

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64
Q

What is antagonism in terms of hormones?

A

One hormone reduces the effect of another

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65
Q

Give an example of hormone antagonism

A

In pregnancy progesterone inhibits the effects of oestrogen on the uterus

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66
Q

Primary hypersecretion

A

Gland produces xs hormone

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67
Q

Give an example of primary hypersecretion

A

Cushings disease. Adrenal gland produces xs cortisol

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68
Q

Secondary hypersecretion

A

Too much tropic hormone

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69
Q

Primary hyposecretion

A

Gland secretes too little hormone due to non functioning gland or dietary deficiency

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70
Q

Give an example of primary hyposecretion due to a non functioning gland

A

Addisons disease - adrenal gland does not produce enough cortisol

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71
Q

Give an example of primary hyposecretion due to dietary deficiency

A

Shortage of thyroid hormone due to shortage of iodine in the diet

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72
Q

Secondary hyposecretion

A

Low secretion of a hormone due to low production of tropic hormone

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73
Q

Tertiary hyposecretion

A

Low secretion of hormone and tropic hormone due to low secretion of hypothalamus hormone

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74
Q

What connects the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary gland?

A

Hypothalamo-hypophysial nerve tract

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75
Q

What are the 2 posterior pituitary gland hormones?

A

Oxytocin and vasopressin

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76
Q

Describe the structure of oxytocin and vasopressin?

A

9 amino acids

Disulfide bond between 1 and 6 forming a ring

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77
Q

What type of receptors do oxytocin and vasopressin bind to?

A

G protein linked cell surface receptors

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78
Q

What transport protein is used to transport hormones from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary gland?

A

Neurophysin

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79
Q

Where are granules stored in the posterior pituitary gland?

A

Hering bodies

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80
Q

How are granules released from the posterior pituitary gland?

A

Calcium dependent exocyotosis

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81
Q

What second messenger system is associated with oxytocin?

A

IP3

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82
Q

What is the name for over production of vasopressin?

A

SIADH

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83
Q

What is the treatment for over production of vasopressin?

A

Vasopressin antagonist such as demeclocycline

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84
Q

What does vasopressin under production lead to?

A

Diabetes insipidus

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85
Q

What is the treatment for diabetes insipidus?

A

Synthetic vasopressin

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86
Q

What 3 effects does vasopressin have?

A

Increase cortisol
Increase water retention (aqp)
Increase blood pressure by vasoconstriction

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87
Q

What receptors are associated with vasopressin?

A 
V1a = smooth muscle
V1b = corticotrophs
V2 = kidney
88
Q

What second messenger system is associated with vasopressin?

A

V1 - IP3

V2 - cAMP

89
Q

Where is testosterone produced in women?

A

In the ovaries and adrenal glands

90
Q

Where is testosterone produced in women?

A

In the ovaries and adrenal glands

91
Q

How do men produce estrogen?

A

Aromatase converts testosterone to estradiol

92
Q

What is acromegaly?

A

Excess growth hormone is produced after epiphyseal fusion

93
Q

What is a feature of acromegaly?

A

Face coarsening. Bones cannot grow anymore due to epiphyseal fusion but tissues can still grow

94
Q

What are 2 common cause of anterior pituitary hormone primary hypersecretion?

A

Pituitary adenoma and lack of suppression of hypothalamic trophic hormone

95
Q

How does cushings disease lead to diabetes?

A

Increased cortisol means increased gluconeogenesis which can lead to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes

96
Q

Which thyroid hormone has a longer half life?

A

T4 (5 - 7 days as opposed to 1 - 3 days)

97
Q

Which thyroid hormone is more abundent?

98
Q

Where are thyroid hormone receptors found?

A

In the nucleus of target cells

99
Q

How do men produce estrogen?

A

Aromatase converts testosterone to estradiol

100
Q

What is acromegaly?

A

Excess growth hormone is produced after epiphyseal fusion

101
Q

What is a feature of acromegaly?

A

Face coarsening. Bones cannot grow anymore due to epiphyseal fusion but tissues can still grow

102
Q

What is a common cause of anterior pituitary hormone primary hypersecretion?

A

Pituitary adenoma

103
Q

How does cushings disease lead to diabetes?

A

Increased cortisol means increased gluconeogenesis which can lead to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes

104
Q

On which part of the nephron does vasopressin act?

A

Distal tubule

105
Q

What are the 3 types of sex hormones?

A

Oestrogens
Progesterones
Androgens

106
Q

What are the 3 steps of spermatogenesis?

A

Mitosis
Meiosis
Cytodifferentiation

107
Q

What are the 5 stages of the human life cycle?

A 
Embryonic/foetal development
Infancy and childhood
Puberty and adolescence
Adulthood
Late adulthood/old age
108
Q

What hormone changes are associated with menopause?

A

Increased FSH and LH levels. Decreased levels of progesterone and oestrogen due to decline in ovarian reserve

109
Q

What are gonadotrophins?

A

FSH and LH

110
Q

What are the symptoms of menopause?

A

Vasomotor
Psychological
Urogenital
Bone loss

111
Q

What are the side effects of oestrogen hrt?

A

Breast tenderness
Bloating
Nausea
Headaches

112
Q

What are the side the side effects of progesterone hrt?

A

Depression, mood swings
Skin changes
Abnormal bleeding

113
Q

What are the risks of hrt?

A

Increased risk of breast and ovarian cancer

114
Q

How does the COC pill work?

A

It blocks ovulation

Thickens cervical mucus

Creates a hostile endometrium which decreases the possibility of implantation should fertilisation occur

115
Q

How does the progesterone only pill work?

A

Thickens cervical mucus

Creates a hostile endometrium so implantation cannot occur even if fertilisation takes place

116
Q

Where is the site of fertilisation?

A

Ampulla of the oviduct

117
Q

When does fertilisation usually occur?

A

24 hours after ovulation

118
Q

How long can sperm survive?

A

48 hours usually but can survive up to 5 days in the female reproductive tract

119
Q

Trace the journey of sperm through the female reproductive tract

A

Vagina, cervical canal, uterus, oviduct, ampulla

120
Q

How does the female reproductive tract aid sperm migration?

A

Myometrium contractions

Upward contractions of the oviduct smooth muscle

Mature egg releases the chemoattractant allurin

121
Q

Where does capacitation occur?

A

Female reproductive tract

122
Q

What is capacitation?

A

Final maturation step that sperm undergo which allows them to penetrate and fertilise an egg

123
Q

What occurs during capacitation?

A

Cholesterol is withdrawn from the membrane

Proteins are redistributed

Calcium enters the cell

124
Q

Which two layers must a sperm penetrate to fertilise an egg?

A

Granulosa cells

Zona pellucida

125
Q

How do sperm cells break through granulosa cells and the zona pellucida?

A

Acrosomal reaction

126
Q

How long after fertilisation does a blastocyst move into the uterus?

127
Q

How long after fertilisation does a blastocyst implant?

128
Q

What are the 5 functions of the placenta?

A

Protection (from mother’s immune system)

Nutrition

Excretion

Gas exchange

Hormone secretion (placenta is an endocrine gland)

129
Q

When does the placenta start to form?

130
Q

When must the placenta be completely self sufficient by?

131
Q

How long does the corpus luteum survive in pregnancy?

A

Around 10 weeks

132
Q

Describe the signalling pathway used in liver regeneration?

A

Hippo pathway. Yap stays in the cytoplasm if a cell has neighbours, yap moves to the nucleus if a cell does not have neighbours

133
Q

What is the name of macrophages in the liver?

A

Kupffer cells

134
Q

What is the main haematopoietic organ up until 5 months of gestation?

135
Q

Mammogenesis

A

Development of mammary glands

136
Q

When does Mammogenesis occur?

137
Q

Lactogenesis

A

Development of lactation

138
Q

Galactopoiesis?

A

Maintenance of lactation

139
Q

Explain the contraceptive effect of breastfeeding

A

Prolactin inhibits GnRH secretion by the hypothalamus, resulting in amenorrhoea

140
Q

How does dopamine affect breast feeding?

A

It inhibits prolactin so stops lactation

141
Q

What are the advantages of breast feeding?

A

Less chance of breast cancer (especially triple negative, hard to treat breast cancer), immune transfer to baby, uterus returns to normal size quicker (oxytocin released by suckling)

142
Q

What stimulates milk production?

A

Drop in oestrogen, progesterone, prolactin and hCS at birth. Suckling is required to stop prolactin levels dropping further and lactation stopping. At weaning when suckling stops prolactin levels drop and lactation stops.

143
Q

What is breast milk made up of?

A

90% water

7% lactose

144
Q

How many calories in 100ml of breast milk?

145
Q

What pH is breast milk?

146
Q

What are the 3 stages of breast milk?

A

Colostrum
Transitional milk
Mature milk

147
Q

What is involution?

A

When the breasts stop producing milk after weaning

148
Q

What are the differences between colostrum and mature milk?

A

Colostrum has less lactose and fat but has more IgG, protein, minerals and fat soluble vitamins

149
Q

What is priapism?

A

Persistant painful erection

150
Q

What are the main causes of erectile dysfunction?

A

Vascular disease (diabetes mellitus)

Neurogenic

Hormonal

Pharmacological

Psychological

151
Q

How does viagra work?

A

It is a PDE-5 inhibitor which inhibits breakdown of cGMP. More cGMP = more smooth muscle relaxation in trabeculae = erection

152
Q

What are the 3 layers of the adrenal cortex and what do they each produce? (From outermost to innermost layer)

A

The zona glomerulosa produces aldosterone

The zona fasciculata produces cortisol

The zona reticularis produces sex steroids

153
Q

What cells are found in the adrenal medulla?

A

Adrenal chromaffin cells

154
Q

What do adrenal chromaffin cells secrete?

A

Catecholamines

155
Q

What are catecholamines?

A

Adrenaline
Noradrenaline
Dopamine
ATP

156
Q

What is pheochromocytoma?

A

Tumour of adrenal chromaffin cells which secretes high amounts of catecholamines

157
Q

What is an advantage of the POP over the COCP?

A

POP has no oestrogen (oestrogen promotes thrombosis) so POP does not increase risk of DVT.

158
Q

Who is not permitted to use the COCP and why?

A

Women with sickle cell disease. Sickle haemoglobin polymerises when deoxygenated.

159
Q

How do the POP and the COCP stop ovulation?

A

Inhibit FSH and LH secretion by the hypothalamus

160
Q

What are the symptoms of PCOS?

A

Obesity
Androgenic features
Amenorrhagia (no ovulation)

161
Q

What is the mechanism of PCOS?

A

High LH and insulin levels work synergistically to increase ovarian growth and androgen production

162
Q

Which type of immunoglobulin is found mainly in breast milk and why?

A

IgA for protection against enteric infection

163
Q

Why does cushings syndrome cause increased androgen levels?

A

Because cushings syndrome is a defect of the adrenal cortex where androgens are made

164
Q

Which two cell types are found in the distal and collecting tubules?

A

Intercalated cells (acid base balance)

Principal cells (aldosterone and vasopressin)

165
Q

What things do natriuretic peptides do to inhibit Na+ reabsorption?

A

Inhibit aldosterone secretion from adrenal cortex
Inhibit secretion and action of vasopressin
Inhibit renin secretion by kidney
Increase GFR by increasing BP in glomerulus by afferent arteriole vasodilation and efferent arteriole vasoconstriction

166
Q

What is the result of natriuretic peptide secretion?

A

Increased Na+ and accompanying osmotic water excretion from the urine

167
Q

Which natriuretic peptide is more effective?

168
Q

What is the name of the sodium glucose cotransporter?

169
Q

What is a symporter?

A

Uses the movement of one substance with its conc gradient to transport another substance against its conc gradient across a membrane. Both substances are moving in the same direction.

170
Q

What is an antiporter?

A

Uses the movement of one substance with its conc gradient to transport another substance against its conc gradient across a membrane. The substances are moving in opposite directions

171
Q

What is the name of the glucose transporter on the basolateral membrane of tubule cells which transports glucose with its conc gradient?

172
Q

What are the 2 types of aquaporins and how are they different?

A

Aqp 1 is found in the proximal tubule and is always open

Aqp 2 is found in the distal tubule and is under the control of vasopressin

173
Q

What is the role of probenecid?

A

It allows penicillin to stay in the body longer

174
Q

What are acid sources?

A

Lactic acid
Ketoacids (diabetes mellitus)
CO2

175
Q

How is pH homeostasis maintained?

A

Ventilation
Buffers
Kidneys

176
Q

Where are aquaporins 2 stored in principal cells?

177
Q

What is nocturnal enuresis?

A

Bed wetting due to reduced vasopressin secretion at night

178
Q

What is pharmacodynamics?

A

What the drug does to the body

179
Q

What is pharmacokinetics?

A

What the body does to the drug

180
Q

What is the difference between agonists and antagonists?

A

Agonists activate receptors

Antagonists block receptors

181
Q

Biased agonism

A

Different ligands bind to the same receptor and cause activation of different pathways

182
Q

Ec50

A

Dose which gives response at 50% of maximum

183
Q

What is osmotic diuresis?

A

Increase in urination rate

184
Q

What is bioavailability?

A

The proportion of a drug that enters circulation

185
Q

What type of diuretic would you use to treat hypertension and why?

A

Thiozide. It blocks Na/Cl channels on the apical membrane of epithelial cells in the distal tubule

186
Q

Which type of diuretic would you use to treat liver disease and why?

A

Potassium sparing diuretic because they block Na/K exchange in the collecting tubule

187
Q

Which type of diuretic would you use to treat water retention?

A

Loop diuretic

188
Q

Which type of diuretic would you use to treat kidney disease?

A

Potassium sparing or loop

189
Q

Which type of diuretic would you use to treat heart failure?

A

Potassium sparing or loop

190
Q

Name the 5 types of diuertic and say where they act

A 
Osmotic (PCT)
Loop (ascending loop of henle)
Carbonic anhydrase inhibiting
Thiazide (DCT)
Potassium sparing (collecting tubule)
191
Q

Which type of diuretic would you use to treat cerebral oedema or glaucoma?

A

Osmotic (mannitol)

192
Q

Name a loop diuretic

A

Furosemide

193
Q

Name a thiozide

A

Bendroflumethiozide

194
Q

Name a potassium sparing diuretic?

195
Q

Which diuretics are sulfonamides?

A

Loop diuretics

Thiozides

196
Q

Which diuretic is the only one which reduces renal blood flow?

197
Q

Which diuretic has the longest half life?

A

Amiloride (6 - 9 hours)

198
Q

Which diuretics are associated with gout?

A

Mainly thiazide but also loop

199
Q

How is mannitol administered?

200
Q

Which diuretic has the shortest half life?

A

Furosemide (less than 100 mins)

201
Q

What is the half life of a drug?

A

The amount of time for the concentration of a drug in the body to be reduced to half the original value

202
Q

What is desmopressin?

A

Synthetic vasopressin

203
Q

How is furosemide administered?

204
Q

How is bendroflumethiozide administered?

205
Q

How is amiloride administered?

206
Q

What are the 4 processes associated with pharmacokinetics

A 
Adme
Absorption
Distribution
Metabolism 
Excretion
207
Q

What is MTC in terms of pharmacokinetics?

A

Maximum tolerated concentration

208
Q

What is MEC in terms of pharmacokinetics?

A

Minimum effective concentration

209
Q

What does intrathecal mean?

A

Into the spinal cord

210
Q

What are the 4 main body fluid compartments?

A

Plasma
Interstitial fluid
Transcellular fluid
Intracellular fluid

211
Q

Which type of molecules can pass through the blood brain barrier?

A

Lipophilic

212
Q

Why would you administer a drug intrathecally?

A

Because it can bypass the blood brain barrier

213
Q

Volume of distribution

A

Volume into which the drug appears to be distributed with a concentration equal to that in the plasma

214
Q

Why is relatively little lipophilic drug found in the plasma?

A

A lot gets sequestered in adipose tissue

215
Q

What is the main site of drug metabolism and the site of first pass metabolism?

216
Q

Damage to which part of the spinal cord causes back pain?

A

Sciatic nerve

Biomedical Sciences (6 decks)

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