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Bacteriology and Virology > Human Physiology > Flashcards

Human Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

t= x^2/2D

A 
t= time
x= distance
d= diffusion coefficient
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2
Q

What are the two circulatory systems?

A

pulmonary and systemic

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3
Q

What three blood vessels are there?

A

Arteries
Veins
Capillaries

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4
Q

Where is the majority of blood volume distributed? What percentage?

A

Veins, venules, veinous sinuses

64%

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5
Q

What % of blood volume is in the arteries?

A

13%

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6
Q

What % of blood volume is in the heart?

A

7%

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7
Q

What % of blood volume is in the arterioles and capillaries?

A

7%

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8
Q

What % of blood volume is in the pulmonary cirulation?

A

9%

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9
Q

What is the adventitia?

A

The outer wall of the blood vessel consisting of mainly connective tissue

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10
Q

What is the media?

A

middle part of blood vessel consiting of smooth muscle that contract and relax helping control blood flow

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11
Q

What is the Intima?

A

Inner layer of blood vessel consisting of epithelial cells

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12
Q

What is the adventitia made of?

A

fibroblasts and fibrous elements merged with connective tissue
Vava vasorum
Nervi vascularis

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13
Q

What is the Vaso vasorum

A

blood vessels in arterial wall of the adventitia

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14
Q

What is the Nervi vascularis?

A

nerves ending on vascular smooth muscle

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15
Q

What is the media made of?

A

elastic fibres
collagen fibres
circumferentially smooth muscle cells

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16
Q

What is the intima made of?

A

endothelial cells surrounded by subendothelium

elastic fibres

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17
Q

What are the four types of arteries?

A

Elastic
Muscular
Terminal
Arterioles

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18
Q

What is the purpose of elastic arteries?

A

convert pulsative flow into smooth continuous flow

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19
Q

What is makes up muscular arteries?

A

Smooth muscle

less elastic fibres then elastic arteries

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20
Q

What arteries are the resistance vessels?

A

Terminal and Arteriole

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21
Q

What is the diameter of terminal arteries?

A

100-150um

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22
Q

What is the diameter of arterioles and what purpose do they serve?

A

10-100um

control release of blood into capillaries

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23
Q

Why do veins have valves?

A

to control blood flow

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24
Q

Why do veins have thinner walls than arteries?

A

The walls are more muscular but thinner to act as a resevoir for blood

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25
Q

What are the size of venules?

A

50-200um

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26
Q

What do venules consist of?

A

endothelial layer surrounded by longitudinal smooth muscle and occasional pericytes

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27
Q

How big are capillaries?

A

0.5-1mm long

4-6um wide

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28
Q

What is the transit time of capillaries?

A

0.5-2seconds

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29
Q

What is the transit time of capillaries during exercise?

A

0.25seconds

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30
Q

What organ has the highest density of capillaries?

A

The brain

3000/mm^2

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31
Q

What is the density of capilaries in skeletal muscle?

A

300-1000/mm^2

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32
Q

What regulates the number of perfused capillaries?

A

Terminal arterioles

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33
Q

What is the vasomotion of terminal arterioles?

A

relaxion and contraction cycles

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34
Q

What is the average time of vasomotion of in skeletal muscles?

A

15 seconds

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35
Q

What conditions will cause relaxation of the precapillary sphincters?

A

High CO2

Low O2

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36
Q

What are the three types of capillaries?

A

Continuous
Discontinuous
Fenestrated

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37
Q

Where are continuous capillaries found?

A

Fat
muscle
nervous system

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38
Q

Where are discontinuous capillaries found?

A

Liver
Bone marrow
Spleen

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39
Q

Where are fenestrated capillaries found?

A

intestinal villi
endocrine glands
kidney glomeruli

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40
Q

Which type of capillarie contain caveolae?

A

Continuous

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41
Q

What do the tight junctions connect in continuous capillaries?

A

endothelium to the intima

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42
Q

Which type of cappillary contain fenestra with diaphragm?

A

Fenestrated

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43
Q

Which type of capillary is the permeable to proteins and larger molecules?

A

Discontinous

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44
Q

What is the diffusion distance in continuous capillaries?

A

300um

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45
Q

How does transport happen across continuous capillaries?

A

through intracellular clefts or calveolae mediated vesicular transport

46
Q

What is the diffusion distance of fenestrated capillaries?

A

50-60nm

closed by 4-5nm

47
Q

What are fenstrated capillaries a magnitude more permable to then continous membranes?

A

water and small water soluble molecules

48
Q

What are discontinuous capillaries also called?

A

Sinusoids

49
Q

How wide are the gaps in sinusoids?

A

gaps may be 100nm

50
Q

What is hydrostatic pressure?

A

The pressure in the circulatory system exerted by the volume of blood when it is confined in a blood vessel.

51
Q

What end of the capillary has higher hydrostatic pressure?

A

arteiole end

52
Q

What end of the capillary has lower hydrostatic pressure?

A

Venule end

53
Q

What is osmotic pressure?

A

The pressure exerted by the flow of liquid through a semi-permeable membrane separating two solutions with different concentrations of solute.

54
Q

What happens when hydrostatic pressure is more than osmotic pressure?

A

Fluid leaks out

55
Q

What happens when hydrostatic pressure is less than osmotic pressure?

A

Fluid seeps in

56
Q

What is Darcys law?

A

Q = ((-k A) / m) x (P1-P2)/L

  • no pressure difference no flow
  • flow occurs from high to low pressure
  • flow is proportional to pressure difference
  • only valid for laminal flow
57
Q

Q = ((-k A) / m) x (P1-P2)/L

A 
Q = flow
k = permeability
A = cross-sectional area
m = viscosity
P = pressure
L = length
58
Q

What is Darcys law in relation to circulation?

A

cardiac output = arterial pressure / total peripheral resistance

59
Q

Types of blood flow through blood vessels?

A

laminar
turbulent
single-file

60
Q

What is laminar flow?

A

liquid can be modelled as set of thin concentric shells sliding past each other

lamina in touch with vessel wall has zero velocity
red blood cells concentrate in middle of blood vessel

thickness of marginal plasma layer is 2-4 µm

therefore flow profile not exactly parabolic

61
Q

Where does laminar flow occur?

A

arteries, arterioles, venules and veins

62
Q

What is blood flow like in the aorta?

A

Laminar flow
pulsatile
blood flow almost still during diastole
pressure pulse travels with 4 m/sec in young, 10 m/sec in elderly persons

63
Q

What is turbulent flow?

A

If pressure difference is above a critical point, transition to turbulent flow occurs

flow now increases only as square root of pressure difference

64
Q

Where does turbulent flow occur?

A

Heart ventricles

atherosclerotic lesions

65
Q

What is single-file flow?

A

diameter of most capillaries (5-6 µm) less than width of erythrocyte (8µm)

friction between blood cells and vessel wall minimised by glycocalyx or a thin film of plasma

efficiency depends on erythrocyte ability to change shape; impaired in some clinical conditions

leukocytes stiffer than erythrocytes

66
Q

What is Poiseuille‘s law

A

Q = (( p r^4) / 8m) x (P1-P2)/L
Resistance to flow
r = tube radius

67
Q

R = R1 + R2

A

resistance of blood vessels in series

68
Q

1/ = 1/R1 + 1/R2

A

resistance of blood vessels in parallel

69
Q

What is blood flow controlled by?

A

Arterioles

70
Q

What are intrinsic blood flow control factors?

A

blood flow control due to local factors

71
Q

What are extrinsic blood flow control factors?

A

blood flow control by factors outside the organ often capable of overriding intrinsic system

72
Q

What are examples of intrinsic blood flow control factors?

A

myogenic response (response to stretching)

vasodilator metabolites

endothelial factors

autocoids (local hormones)

in skin: temperature

73
Q

What is Metabolic hyperaemia?

A

CO2

lactic acid

adenosine

K+

phosphate

osmolarity

all increase blood flow

74
Q

What is intrinsic hyperaemia?

A

Due to build up of vasodilator metabolites, prostaglandins and NO
After exercise, the blood flow to a muscle remains elevated considerably for a few minutes

75
Q

What is NO?

A

diatomic free radical
lipid soluble
degraded or reacted within a few seconds
The natural form is a gas

76
Q

What is NO synthesized from? Catalysed by?

A

L-arginine
nitric oxide synthase
NADPH as a cofactor

77
Q

How is smooth muscle relaxed by NO

A 
Shear stress stimulates endothelial NO production
Estrogens up-regulate endothelial NO synthase
Inflammatory mediators (e.g. cytokines, bradykinin) increase NO synthesis
78
Q

Extrinsic blood flow

A

hormones
nerves
- mostly vasoconstrictory (e.g. sympathetic)
- vasodilatatory nerves found in a few tissues, e.g. cerebral and coronary arteries, salivary glands, pancreas, gastrointestinal tract, genitalia, bladder
- vasodilatatory nerves are parasympathetic

79
Q

How big is the human heart

A

6inches long
300g
Stroke volume 70ml

80
Q

How many heart beats per year?

A

approx. 38 million beats/year

81
Q

CO = HR x SV

A 
CO = cariac output ml/min
HR = heart rate beats/min
SV = stroke volume ml/beat
82
Q

What is cardiac reserve?

A

difference between resting and max CO

83
Q

Which ventricle has a thicker wall?

A

Left Ventricle

84
Q

Why does the LV have a thicker wall?

A

pushes to systemic circulation

85
Q

Why are the atria thin?

A

Most work done by gravity

86
Q

What is the heart muscle called?

A

Myocardium

87
Q

What are the myocardium?

A

Epicardium
Myocardium
endocardium

88
Q

What is the epicardium?

A

visceral layer of serous pericardium

89
Q

What is the endocardium?

A

lining the chambers

90
Q

What are the two branches of the left main coronary artery?

A

LAD and circumflex

91
Q

What are the heart valves?

A

pulmonary valve
aortic valve
mitral/bicuspid valve
tricuspid valve

92
Q

What does the pulmonary valve do?

A

prevent backflow from right ventricle to lung

93
Q

What does the aortic valve do?

A

prevent backflow from left ventricle to body

94
Q

What does the mitral valve do?

A

separate left and right atrium

95
Q

What does the tricuspid valve do?

A

separates right atrium from right ventricle

96
Q

How many tricuspid valves are there?

A

3

97
Q

How many bicuspid valves are there?

A

1

98
Q

How are heart valves connected to papillary muscles?

A

via tendinous strings

99
Q

What are papillary muscles?

A

contract during systole to prevent valves inverting

100
Q

What are the 2 heart sounds?

A

S1 and S2

101
Q

What is S1?

A

Closing of AV valves at start of ventricular systole

102
Q

What is S2?

A

Closing of semilunar (aortic and Pulmonary) valves at the end of ventricular systole

103
Q

What is the average length of a sarcomere?

A

1.8-2um

104
Q

What is the A band of a sarcomere made of ?

A

actin and myosin

105
Q

What is the I band of a sarcomere made of?

A

actin

106
Q

What is the Z band of a sarcomere made of?

A

a-actin

107
Q

How big are thick thilaments?

A

1.6um long

6nm composed of actin

108
Q

What is the sliding filament mechanism?

A

when the muscle contracts, actin and myosin filaments slide past each other, powered by ATP hydrolysis
contraction is triggered by Ca2+ release

109
Q

At rest what proteins stop actin and myosin interacting?

A

troponin

tropomyosin

110
Q

How does Ca2+ affect muscle contraction?

A

Ca2+ binding to troponin causes conformational changes in tropomyosin that allow actin-myosin interaction.

111
Q

What is the cardiac cycle?

A 
atrial contraction
isovolumetric contraction
rapid ejection
reduced ejection
isovolumetric relaxation
rapid filling
reduced filling

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