Human Growth & Development Flashcards
CLEP Testing
Psychoanalytic Development Theory
Examines the factors that motivates behavior by focusing on the role of the unconscious.
Theorist that support the Psychoanalytical development approach
Sigmund Freud and Erikson Erikson
Pioneered the Psychosexual Theory
Sigmund Freud
Theorist who expanded Freud’s Psychosexual Theory and created his own Psychosocial Theory
Erik Erikson
Strengths of Psychoanalytic Theory
Awareness of unconsciousness motivations and the importance of early experiences on early development.
Weaknesses of Psychoanalytic Theory
The ideas involved are difficult to test.
True or False
Psychoanalytic Theory does not have enough research to support its ideas
True
Learning Theories
Scientific approach that can be measured or quantified
Ivan Pavlov
Studied learning through associating his theory of classical conditioning
B.F. Skinner
Examined the effects of reinforce & punishment through his Operant Conditioning,
Albert Bandura
Considered the effects of behavior in his social Learning theory
Strengths of Learning Theories
Can be tested and practically be applied
Weakness of Learning Theories
Ignores genetic processes and changes that occurs throughout the human lifespan.
7 Stages of growth and development Development
infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood and old age.
B.F. Skinner ‘s
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence
Ivan Pavloc’s
Classic Conditioning
A learning procedure that involves pairing a stimulus with a conditioned response. In the famous experiments that Ivan Pavlov conducted with his dogs, Pavlov found that objects or events could trigger a conditioned response.
Child development occurs in a series of
stages focused on different pleasure areas of
the body. During each stage, the child encounters
conflicts that play a significant role in the course of development.id, ego, and superego
(what Freud called “the
psychic apparatus”).
Freud’s
Psychosexual Theory
Eight-stage theory of psychosocial
development describes growth and change
throughout life from infancy to death, focusing on
social interaction and conflicts that arise
during different stages of development.
During each stage, people are faced with a
developmental conflict that impacts later
functioning and further growth.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Developmental Theory
Theory that seeks to describe and explain the development
of thought processes and mental states. It also
looks at how these thought processes influence
the way we understand and interact with the world
Piaget’s 4 stages of Cognitive
Developmental Theory
Piaget’s Cognitive
Developmental Theory
- The Sensorimotor Stage
Senses
0-2 y/o
Develops the senses. An infant’s knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities. Egocentric.
Doesnot yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information.
Object Permanence: doesnot recognize an object exist even though they cannot see them.
Example; Introduce a ball. When the ball is removed the child does not recognize it.
Key Milestone= object permanence.
Piaget’s Cognitive
Developmental Theory
- The Preoperational Stage
Operational meaning mental reasoning
2-7 y/o
Learns to use talk and use language. Pretend Play. Learn to talk. Fantasy.
Able to use symbols. Become very egocentric. Curious around 4 y/o
Example; May stand in front of you not realizing you can’t see .Hiding by closing their eyes.
Piaget’s Cognitive
Developmental Theory
- The Concrete Operational Stage
Operational meaning mental reasoning
7-11 y/o
Develops concrete cognitive operations. Understands deductive reasoning. Conservation.
Gains a better understanding of
mental operations. (math)
Children begin thinking logically about
concrete events but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.
Understands the water in the glass test.
Piaget’s Cognitive
Developmental Theory
- The Formal Operational Stage
Operational meaning mental reasoning
12+ y/o
A period between age 12 to adulthood when people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.
Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.
We understand consequence. Moral reasoning like adults.
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Bandura believed that the conditioning and reinforcement process could not sufficiently explain all of human learning.
According to social learning theory, behaviors can also be learned through observation and modeling. By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new skills and acquire new information.
Believed that children learn actively and
through hands-on experiences.
His sociocultural theory also suggested
that parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher order functions.
Social interactions as a child develops cognition.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural
Development Theory
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural
Development Theory
Elementary Functions to Higher Functions
Elementary Functions Attention Sensation Perception Memory Leads to Higher Function of independence
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural
Development Theory
- MKO= More Knowledgeable Others
- ZPD= Zone of Proximal Development
- Language
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural
Development Theory
MKO= More Knowledgeable Others
Someone who has a higher level of understanding.
The gap between what a
person can do with help and what they can do on their
own. It is with the help of more knowledgeable others
that people are able to progressively learn and increase
their skills and scope of understanding.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural
Development Theory
The Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural
Development Theory
- Language
Language is the main means to transmit
information to children.
Powerful tool in intellectual Adaptation
Internal speech (speaking to themselves)
Become more social competent
Thought is a result of language
Harry Harlow
Created the Love experiment with monkeys
Susan E. Carey
She is an expert in language acquisition and
children’s development of biological concepts and
is known for introducing the concept of fast mapping,
whereby children learn the meanings of words after
a single exposure.
Cognitive Development
Lev Vygotsky
Focused on the interactions we as individuals have with those around us and key period of our life called the Zone of Proximal Development. Stresses the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition. He believed strongly that community plays a central role in the process of “making meaning.”
Teratogen
Any agent that can disturb the development of an
embryo or fetus. Teratogens may cause a birth
defect in the child. Or a teratogen may halt the
pregnancy outright. The classes of teratogens
include radiation, maternal infections, chemicals,
and drugs.
An American psychologist best-known for his influence on behaviorism. Skinner referred to his own philosophy as ‘radical behaviorism’ and suggested that the concept of free will was simply
an illusion. All human action, he instead believed, was the direct result of conditioning.
Behavior Development
B. F. Skinner
BF Skinner:
Reinforcement
A term used in operant conditioning to refer to
anything that increases the likelihood that a
response
will occur. Note that reinforcement is defined
by the
effect that it has on behavior—
it increases or strengthens
the response.
BF Skinner:
Operant Conditioning
A method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning,
an individual makes an association between a particular behavior and a consequence (Skinner, 1938).
BF Skinner:
Primary Reinforcement
It occurs naturally and
doesn’t require learning in order to work. Primary reinforcers often have an evolutionary basis in that
they aid in the survival of the species.
Examples of primary reinforcers include food, air, sleep, water, and sex. Genetics and experience may also play a role in how reinforcing such things works.
BF Skinner:
Secondary Reinforcement
Also known as conditioned reinforcement,
involves stimuli that have become rewarding
by being paired with another reinforcing
stimulus. For example, when training a dog,
praise and treats might be used as primary
reinforcers. The sound of a clicker can be
associated with the praise and treats until the
sound of the clicker itself begins to work
as a secondary reinforcer.
BF Skinner:
Positive Reinforcement
Involves adding something to increase a response,
such as giving a bit of candy to a child after
she cleans up her room.
BF Skinner:
Negative Reinforcement
Involves removing something in order to increase a response, such as canceling a quiz if students turn
in all of their homework for the week. By removing
the aversive stimulus (the quiz), the teacher
hopes to increase the desired behavior
(completing all homework).
Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg
Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality
Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation.
The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.
Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage,
children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.
Erik Erikson
Developed the only major theory that covered
normal human development and also took into
account the entire human lifespan. He formulated
eight stages of development, each of which is
dependent upon the resolution of a crisis.
Erik Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
Stage Psychosocial Crisis Basic Virtue Age
- Trust vs. Mistrust Hope 0 - 1½
- Autonomy vs. Shame Will 1½ - 3
- Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose 3 - 5
- Industry vs. Inferiority Competency 5 - 12
- Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity 12 - 18
- Intimacy vs. Isolation Love 18 - 40
- Generativity vs. Stagnation Care 40 - 65
- Ego Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom 65+
Erik Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
0-1/2 y/o
The infant develops a sense of trust when interactions provide reliability, care, and affection.
A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
They will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.
Erik Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately age two to three years.
The infant develops a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.
Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their
children to explore the limits of their abilities
within an encouraging environment which is
tolerant of failure.
Erik Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
Occurs during the preschool years,
between the ages of three and five.
The child begins to assert control and power
over their environment by planning activities,
accomplishing tasks and facing challenges.
Success at this stage leads to a sense of purpose.
Children begin to plan activities, make up
games, and initiate activities with others.
Erik Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
This stage occurs during childhood between
the ages of five and twelve.
It is at this stage that the child’s peer group
will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child’s self-esteem.
The child is coping with new learning and social demands.
Success leads to a sense of competence,
while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Erik Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
- Identity vs. Role Confusion
Occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years.
Teenagers explore who they are as individuals,
and seek to establish a sense of self, and may
experiment with different roles, activities, and
behaviors. According to Erikson, this is
important to the process of forming a strong
identity and developing a sense of direction
in life.
Erik Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
This stage takes place during young adulthood
between the ages of approximately 19 and 40.
During this period, the major conflict centers
on forming intimate, loving relationships with
other people. Success leads to strong relationships,
while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
Erik Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
This stage takes place during middle adulthood
between the ages of approximately 40 and 65.
People experience a need to create or nurture
things that will outlast them, often having
mentees or creating positive changes that will
benefit other people. Success leads to feelings
of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure
results in shallow involvement in the world.
Erik Erikson’s Stages of
Psychosocial Development
8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair
This stage takes place after age 65 and involves
reflecting on one’s life and either moving into feeling satisfied and happy with one’s life or feeling
\a deep sense of regret. Success at this
stages leads to feelings of wisdom, while
failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.
A period of identity development that occurs
after the adolescent stage of identity
diffusion and is generally considered the
longest period of that development.
It is a period of active searching and
exploring alternatives to current situations.
Identity Moratorium
Refers to a part of the process of a person
figuring out who they are. Typically, it is the
part of adolescence when a person has not yet
fully realized their social identity or
defined their personality traits - and they
are not actively seeking to.
Identity Diffusion
A stage of self-identity discovery in which an
individual has an identity but hasn’t explored
other options or ideas. Most common in young
adolescents, in this stage the individual has
just adopted the traits and qualities of parents
and friends.
Identity Foreclosure
After a process of active exploration, adolescents have made a strong commitment to a highly developed set of beliefs and values. Identity achievement is characterized by high commitment and high exploration.
Identity Achievement
Describes the general tendency for the development
of motor skills to start at the center of an organism and radiate outwards from there. The middle is the first to develop and movement extends outwards from there.
Infants will first learn to move their torso
and then their arms and legs. Once the motor
skills for their limbs are developed then finger
manipulation and other fine-tuned movements
will develop.
Proximodistal Development
Intermodal perception is the coordinated perception of singular objects through several senses. This coordination and interaction of senses is believed to develop in early childhood and permits the individual to be able to see an object, while simultaneously being to hear, feel, smell through whichever senses are being stimulated.
Intermodal Perception
An example of intermodal perception would be
being able to see, taste, smell, feel, and
hear yourself taking a big bite out of an apple.
Animism
The religious belief that objects, places
and creatures all possess a distinct
spiritual essence.
Deductive (Logical) Inference
Inferences are made when a person (or machine)
goes beyond available evidence to form a conclusion.
With a deductive inference, this conclusion
always follows the stated premises.
In other words, if the premises are true,
then the conclusion is valid.
During this stage, which occurs from age 7-12,
the child shows increased use of logical thinking.
One of the important processes that develops
is that of Reversibility, which refers to the
ability to recognize that numbers or objects can
be changed and returned to their original condition
Reversibility
Transductive Reasoning
Refers to a type of thinking commonly identified
in young children. Transductive reasoning
is based on concrete instances rather
than inductive or deductive reasoning.
Holland’s Six Personality Types
Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Conventional Enterprising
Holland’s Six Personality Types
1. Realistic
Likes to work with animals, tools, or machines;
generally avoids social activities like teaching,
healing, and informing others;
Has good skills in working with tools,
mechanical or electrical drawings, machines, or
plants and animals; Values practical things
you can see, touch, and use like plants and
animals, tools, equipment, or machines;
and sees self as practical, mechanical, and realistic.
Holland’s Six Personality Types
2. Investigative
Likes to study and solve math or science problems; generally avoids leading, selling, or persuading people; Is good at understanding and solving science and math problems; Values science; and Sees self as precise, scientific, and intellectual.
Holland’s Six Personality Types
3. Artistic
Likes to do creative activities like art, drama,
crafts, dance, music, or creative writing;
generally avoids highly ordered or repetitive
activities; Has good artistic abilities – in creative
writing, drama, crafts, music, or art;
Values the creative arts – like drama, music,
art, or the works of creative writers; and
Sees self as expressive, original,
and independent.
Holland’s Six Personality Types
4. Social
Likes to do things to help people – like, teaching,
nursing, or giving first aid, providing information;
generally avoids using machines, tools, or animals
to achieve a goal; Is good at teaching, counseling,
nursing, or giving information; Values helping
people and solving social problems; and
Sees self as helpful, friendly, and trustworthy.
Holland’s Six Personality Types
5. Enterprising
Likes to lead and persuade people, and to sell
things and ideas; generally avoids activities
that require careful observation and scientific,
analytical thinking;
Is good at leading people and selling
things or ideas; Values success in politics,
leadership, or business; and sees self as
energetic, ambitious, and sociable.
Holland’s Six Personality Types
6. Conventional
Likes to work with numbers, records, or
machines in a set, orderly way; generally
avoids ambiguous, unstructured activities
Is good at working with written records
and numbers in a systematic, orderly way;
Values success in business; and
Sees self as orderly, and good at
following a set plan.
Pioneers of
Psychoanalytic Theories
The psychodynamic theories of personality are mainly composed of famous theorists such as Sigmund Freud,
Erik Erikson and Alfred Adler.
The Object Relations Theory also belongs to
this group of personality theories. Let’s see how
each theory explains the nature and process of
personality.
Robert Havighurst
Havighurst’s main assertion is that development is continuous throughout the entire lifespan, occurring
in stages, where an individual moves from one stage
to the next by means of successful resolution of
problems or performance of developmental tasks.
These tasks are typically encountered by most
people in the culture where the individual belongs.
Robert Havighurst
Stage 1. Early Childhood
- Learning to walk.
- Learning to take solid foods
- Learning to talk
- Learning to control the elimination of body
wastes - Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
- Forming concepts and learning language
to describe social and physical reality. - Getting ready to read
Robert Havighurst
Stage 2. Middle Childhood
- Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.
- Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself
- Learning to get along with age-mates
- Learning appropriate masculine or feminine social role
- Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
- Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.
- Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
- Achieving personal independence
Robert Havighurst
Stage 3. Adolescence
- Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes
- Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
- Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively
- Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults
- Preparing for marriage and family life Preparing for an economic career
- Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an ideology
- Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior
Robert Havighurst
Stage 4. Early Adulthood
- Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes
- Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
- Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively
- Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults
- Preparing for marriage and family life Preparing for an economic career
- Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an ideology
- Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior
Robert Havighurst
Stage 4. Early Adulthood
- Selecting a mate
- Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
- Learning to live with a marriage partner
- Starting a family
- Rearing children
- Managing a home
- Getting started in an occupation
- Taking on civic responsibility
- Finding a congenial social group
Describes a mental
process whereby a new concept can be learned based
only on a single exposure to a given unit of information
through a process of association.
Fast Mapping
Expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of children, which he believed follows a series of stages. Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. Each level has two distinct stages
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg Theory of Moral development
Level 2 Conventional
Conformity to social rules remains important to the individual. Emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships with other people and social systems. The individual strives to support rules that are set forth by others such as parents, peers, and the government in order to win their approval or to maintain social order.
Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation
Behaviour is determined by social approval. The individual wants to maintain or win the affection and approval of others by being a “good person.”
Stage 4: Law and order orientation
Social rules and laws determine behaviour. The individual now takes into consideration a larger perspective, that of societal laws. Moral decision making becomes more than consideration of close ties to others. The individual believes that rules and laws maintain social order that is worth preserving.
Lawrence Kohlberg Theory of Moral development
Level 3 Postconventional
The individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her own society. Morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. The individual attempts to take the perspective of all individuals.
Stage 5: Social contract orientation
Individual rights determine behavior. The individual views laws and rules as flexible tools for improving human purposes.
Stage 6: Tthe highest stage of functioning. The appropriate action is determined by one’s self-chosen ethical principles of conscience. These principles are abstract and universal in application. This type of reasoning involves taking the perspective of every person or group that could potentially be affected by the decision.
Freud’s The 3 levels of Consciousness
Unconscious Mind
Perconscious Mind
Conscious Mind
Freud
Unconscious Mind
Exists outside of your awareness
Freud
Preconscious Mind
All information that you are currently aware of but cant be recalled.
Freud
Conscious Mind
Current state of awareness
Freud’s 3 Parts of the Personality
EGO
SUPEREGO
ID
First personality to develop. It is the biological component of personality and includes instinct. Operates in the unconscious mind. Acts on the pleasure principle. Works on the idea that all your needs must be met. Selfishness
ID
Second personality to develop and operates in the preconscious and conscious mind. Part of the personality that makes your decisions and faces the consequences.
EGO
Last personality to develop and works in all levels of consciousness. Always concerned with what is socially acceptable. Pushes you view of what is right or wrong
SUPEREGO
