Human Growth and Development Flashcards
Freud’s stages are psychosexual while Erik Erikson’s stages are:
a) psychometric
b) psychodiagnostic
c) psychopharmacological
d) psychosocial
(d) Erik Erikson’s eight stages focus on social relationships and thus are described as psychosocial. Psychometric refers to mental testing or measurement. Psychodiagnostic pertains to the study of personality through interpretation of behavior or nonverbal cues. In counseling it can also mean that the counselor uses the aforementioned factors or tests to label the client (using the DSM). Psychopharmacology studies the effects that medications or drugs have on psychological functions.
In Freud’s psychodynamic theory instincts are emphasized. Erik Erikson is an ego psychologist. Ego psychologists:
a) emphasize id processes.
b) refuse the concept of the superego.
c) believe in man’s powers of reasoning to control behavior.
d) are sometimes known as radical behaviorists.
(c) Your first Rosenthal reminder: Psychodynamic theories focus on unconscious processes rather than cognitive factors when counseling clients. emphasized the importance of the id, while Erikson stressed ego functions. The ego is logical, rational, and utilizes the power of reasoning and control to keep impulses in check. Ego psychologists accent the ego and the power of control.
The only psychoanalyst who created a developmental theory which encompasses the entire life span was:
a) Erik Erikson.
b) Milton H. Erickson.
c) A. A. Brill.
d) Jean Piaget, who created the four stage theory.
(a) **Many scholars do not feel that Freud;s theory truly covers the entire life span. **Erik Erikson created a theory with eight stages in which each stage represents a psychosocial crisis. Since the final stage does not even begin until age 60, most personality theorists believe that his theory actually covers the entire life of an individual.
The statement “the ego is dependent on the id” would most likely reflect the work of:
a) Erik Erikson.
b) Sigmund Freud, who created psychodynamic theory.
c) Jay Haley.
d) Arnold Lazarus, William Perry, and Robert Kegan.
(b) In Freudian theory, the id is also called the pleasure principle and houses the animalistic instincts.The ego, which is known as the reality principles, is pressured by the id to succumb to pleasure or gratification regardless of consequences.
Milton H. Erickson
Associated with brief psychotherapy and innovative techniques in hypnosis
Jay Haley
Known for his work in strategic and problem-solving therapy, often utilizing the technique of paradox
Arnold Lazarus
Considered a pioneer in the behavior therapy movement, especially in regard to the use of systematic desensitization, a technique which helps clients cope with phobias.
Robert Perry
Known for his ideas related to adult cognitive development; especially regarding college students. Perry stresses a concept known as dualistic thinking common to teens in which things are conceptualized as good or bad or right and wrong. Dualism has also been referred to as black and white thinking with virtually no ambiguity. As they enter adulthood and move into relativistic thinking the individual now has the ability to perceive that not everything is right or wrong, but an answer can exist relative to a specific situation. In essence, there is more than one way to view the world.
Robert Kegan
A well-known figure in the area of adult cognitive development. He stresses interpersonal development. His theory is billed as a “constructive model of development, meaning that individuals construct reality throughout the life span.”
Jean Piaget’s idiographic approach created his theory with four stages. The correct order from stage 1 to stage 4 is:
a) formal operations, concrete operations, preoperations, sensorimotor.
b) formal operations, preoperations, concrete operations, sensorimotor.
c) sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, formal operations.
d) concrete operations, sensorimotor, preoperations, formal operations.
(c) Idiographic approaches to theories such as Freud and Piaget examine individuals (not groups of people) in depth. Idiographic theories can be contrasted with nomothetic approaches such as behaviorism or the DSM where large numbers of people are studied the create general principles that apply to the population. Onward! Piaget was adamant that the order of the stages remains the same for any culture, although the age of the individual could vary. It is time for your first memory device. It would make sense that Piaget’s first stage emphasizes the senses and the child’s motoric skills, hence the name sensorimotor stage. I can remember the last stage by reminding myself that people seem to be more formal as they get older. The final stage is of course formal operations. The stage with “pre” must come before the remaining stage which is concrete operations.
Some behavioral scientists have been critical of Swiss child psychologist Jean Piaget’s developmental research inasumch as:
a) he utilized the t test too frequently.
b) he failed to check for Type 1 or alpha errors.
c) he worked primarily with minority children.
d) his findings were often derived from observing his own children.
(d) Piaget did not rely on statistical experiments that would be impacted by type 1 or alpha errors or utilize the t test. He observed his own children, Lucienne, Laurent, and Jacqueline by utilizing games and interviews.
A tall skinny pitcher of water is emptied into a small squatty pitcher. A child indicates that she feels the small pitcher has less water. The child has not yet mastered:
a) symbolic schema
b) conservation
c) androgynous psychosocial issues
d) trust versus mistrust
(b) In Piaget’s theory, the term conservation refers to the notion that a substance’s weight, mass, and volume remain the same even if it changes shape. According to Piaget, the child masters conservation and the concept of reversibility during the concrete operations stage (ages 7-11 years). Here is a memory device. Both conservation and the ability to count mentally both occur in the concrete operational thought stage. Fortunately, conservation, counting, and concrete operations all start with a “c.”
In Piagetian literature, conservation would most likely refer to
a) volume or mass
b) defenses of the ego
c) sensorimotor intelligence stage
d) a specific psychosexual stage life
(a) Example-A child is shown a pie cut into two pieces. The same pie is cut into 10 pieces. If the child has not mastered conservation he or she will say that the pie that is now cut into 10 pieces is bigger than when it was cut into just two pieces. David Elkind and Piaget report that mass is the first and most easily understood concept. The mastery of weight is next, and finally the notion of volume can be comprehended. A good memory device might by MV, such as in most valuable player. The “M,” or mass, will come first and the “V,” or volume, will be the final letter. The “W,” or weight, can be squeezed in-between.
A child masters conservation in the Piagetian stage known as
a) formal operations–12 years and older
b) concrete operations–ages 7-11 years
c) preoperations–ages 2-7 years
d) sensorimotor intelligence–birth to 2 years
(b) Remember your memory device: conservation begins with a “c” and so does concrete operations.
_______ expanded on Piaget’s conceptualization of moral development.
a) Erik Erikson
b) Lev Vygotsky
c) Lawrence Kohlberg
d) John B. Watson
(c) Vygotsky disagreed with Piaget’s notion that developmental stages take place naturally. Vygotsky insisted that the stages unfold due to educational intervention. Kohlberg (the correct answer) is perhaps the leading theorist in moral development. Kohlberg used stories to determine the level of moral development in children. Epigenetic is a biological term borrowed from embryology. This principle states that each stage emerges from the one before it. The process follows a given order and is systematic. Recently, the definition has focused on the fact that environmental factors can influence genetic expression. Kohlberg’s, Erikson’s, and Maslows’ theories are said to be epigenetic in nature. Watson, choice “d,” is the father of American behaviorism and coined the term behaviorism in 1912.
According to Jean Piaget, a child masters the concept of reversibility in the third stage, known as concrete operations or concrete operational thought. This notion suggests
a) that heavier objects are more difficult for a child to lift.
b) the child is ambidextrous
c) the child is more cognizant of mass than weight
d) one can undo an action, hence an object (say a glass of water) can return to its initial shape
(d) Choice “d” is the definition of reversibility. The word ambidextrous, in choice “b,” refers to an individual’s ability to use both hands equally well to perform tasks.
During a thunderstorm, a 6-year-old child in Piaget’s stage of preoperational thought (stage 2) says, “The rain is following me.” This is an example of:
a) egocentrism
b) conservation
c) centration
d) abstract thought
(a) Expect to see a question on the test like this one and you can’t go wrong. This is the typical or prototype question you will come across in order to ascertain whether you are familiar with the Piagetian concept of egocentrism. By egocentrism, Piaget was not really implying the child is self-centered. Instead, egocentrism conveys the fact that the child cannot view the world from the vantage point of someone else. Choice “d” mentions abstract thought, which does not occur until PIaget’s final or fourth stage known as formal operations.
Lawrence Kohlberg suggested
a) a single level or morality
b) two levels of morality
c) three levels of morality
d) preoperational thought as the basis for all morality
(c) Kohlberg’s three levels of moral development are preconventional, conventional, and postconventional (the latter is referred to in some texts as the personal integrity or morality of self-accepted principles level). Each level can be broken down further into two stages
The Heinz dilemma is to Kohlberg’s theory as
a) a brick is to a house
b) Freud is to Jung
c) the Menninger Clinic is to biofeedback
d) a typing test is to the level of typing skill mastered
(d) The Heinz dilemma is one method used by Lawrence Kohlberg to assess the level and stage of moral development in an individual. The story goes like this: A woman in Europe was dying of cancer. Only one drug (a form of radium) could save her. It was discovered by a local druggist. The druggist was charging $2,00, which was ten times his cost to make the drug. The woman’s husband, Heinz, could not raise the money and even if he borrowed from his friends, he could only come up with approximately half the sum. He asked the druggist to reduce the price or let him pay the bill later since his wife was dying but the druggist said, “No.” The husband was thus desperate and broke into the store to steal the drug. Should the husband have done that? Why?
The individual’s reason for the decision (rather than the decision itself) allowed Kohlberg to evaluate the person’s stage of moral development. In short, the reasoning utilized to solve a moral dilemma such as the Heinz dilemma could be used to assess moral development. Kohlberg’s stages and levels are said to apply to all persons and not merely to those living in the U.S. Thus, it is evident that the Heinz dilemma is most like choice “d,” a typing test. C. G. Jung, mentioned in choice “b,” is the father of analytic psychology. Freud is the father of psychoanalysis. And lastly, the Menninger Psyhiatric Clinic is a traditional psychoanalytic foothold as well as the site of landmark work in the area of biofeedback, which is a technique utilized to help individuals learn to control bodily processes more effectively using electronic devices.
The term identity crisis comes from the work of
a) counselors who stress RS involvement issues with clients
b) Erikson
c) Adler
d) Jung
(b) RS in our field means religious and spiritual. Addressing RS issues in counseling has increased in the last several years. In fact, the number of counselors who consider themselves spiritual (though not necessarily religious) is also climbing. RS factors are often examined by counselors who are attempting to integrate the practice of “positive psychology” into their work. Positive psychology is hot right now and I suspect you could see a question about it on your exam. The term, coined by Abraham Maslow and popularized by learned helplessness syndrome pioneer Martin Seligman, regers to the study of human strengths such as joy, wisdom, altruism, the ability to love, happiness, and wisdom. Keep in mind that I use the correct as well as correct answers to teach you key material. Erik Erikson (b) felt that, in an attempt to find out who they really are, adolescents will experiment with various roles. Choice “c” refers to another name you should know, Alfred Adler, the founder of individual psychology, which stresses the inferiority complex.
Kohlberg’s three levels of morality are:
a) preconventional, conventional, postconventional
b) formal, preformal, self-accepted
c) self-accepted, other directed, authority directed
d) preconventional, formal, authority directed
(a) In the preconventional level the child responds to consequences. In this stage reward and punishment (i.e., selfish motives) greatly influence the behavior. In the conventional level the individual wants to meet the standards of the family, society, and even the nation. Kohlberg felt that many people never reach the final level of postconventional or self-accepted morality. A person who reaches this level is concerned with universal, ethical principles of justice, dignity, and equality of human rights. Kohlberg’s research indicated that under 40% of his middle-class urban males had reached the postconventional level. Ghandi, Socrates, and Martin Luther King, Jr. have been cited as examples of individuals who have reached this level, in which the common good of society is a key issue.
Trust versus mistrust is
a) an Adlerian notion of morality
b) Erikson’s first stage of psychosocial development
c) essentially equivalent to Piaget’s concept of egocentrism
d) the basis of morality according to Kohlberg
(b) Erik Erikson proposed eight stages in the formation of the ego identity and this is the first. This stage corresponds to Freud’s initial oral-sensory stage (birth to approximately 1 year). Each of Erikson’s stages is described using bipolar or opposing tendencies. Although Jean Piaget and Erikson are the most prominent stage theorists, you should also become familiar with the work of Harry Stack Sullivan, who postulated the stages of infancy, childhood, the juvenile era, preadolescence, early adolescence, and late adolescence. Sullivan’s theory, known as the psychiatry of interpersonal relations, is similar to Erikson’s theory in that biological determination is seen as less important than interpersonal issues and the sociocultural demands of society. Again, Sullivan focuses on social influences.
