Human Growth and Development Flashcards
Define Repression
Repression—to push aside unwanted or painful thoughts, feelings, or experiences involuntarily. Repression operates on a primarily unconscious level.
Example: People who may have experienced trauma may repress memories in order to cope with the horror.
Define Denial
Denial—to ignore, turn away from, or refuse to acknowledge painful realities that others can detect. Denial may occur at preconscious or conscious levels as well.
Example: A doctor has become addicted to alcohol and other drugs. Although she is late for work or absent regularly and she has been performing poorly, she does not see a problem.
Define Sublimation
Sublimation—to channel energy from unwanted or unacceptable impulses into more socially appropriate avenues.
Example: People engage in sports or physical activities to discharge aggressive urges.
Define Projection
Projection—to attribute one’s own unacceptable desires, behaviors, thoughts, feelings, etc. to others and not to oneself.
Example: One may criticize coworkers for being stingy with a lunch bill but then fail to chip in regularly or consistently tip poorly.
Define Reaction Formation
Reaction Formation—to express the opposite impulse in an effort to conceal one’s true stance. This commonly occurs with repression.
Example: People may devote their lives to promoting the sanctity of marriage, but then engage in multiple extramarital affairs.
Define Displacement
Displacement—to redirect one’s feelings or responses from one object toward a safer target when the original object is inaccessible.
Example: Before work, a man has a fight with his partner. When he arrives, he yells at his subordinate.
Define Rationalization
Rationalization—to make excuses for one’s impulses to provide reassurance and offer incorrect explanations.
Example: In order to cope with not getting the desired grade on an assignment, a student starts to believe that the teacher is unfair and that the grade does not matter.
Define introjection
Introjection—to accept the values and standards of others without question, critique, or analysis.
Example: A child may espouse and articulate a caregiver’s exact political beliefs.
Define Compensation
Compensation—to conceal perceived limitations by developing strengths elsewhere.
Example: Individuals who may not possess physical characteristics deemed “ideal” by society may focus on and excel at academics and school.
Define Acting Out
Acting Out—to deal with emotional conflicts with actions rather than by reflecting or being open to feelings.
Example: Children may throw or break things when their caregivers are fighting.
Define Splitting
Splitting—to fail to integrate positive and negative aspects of self or others, resulting in imbalanced vacillation between polar opposites.
Example: People may view others as “all good” or “all bad” but then go back and forth between idealizing others and devaluing them.
Define Dualism (William Perry)
Dualism- refers to polaristic thinking (e.g., good or bad, right or wrong) and the existence of absolute truth.
Dualistic thinkers rely on authorities, such as teachers and religious leaders, to provide this absolute knowledge and truth. Often hold rigid worldviews that are dictated by black-and-white rules.
Define Relativism (William Perry)
Relativism refers to a significant cognitive shift in recognizing that whether something is right or wrong depends on the situation, and truth exists in a specific context.
Individuals also begin to recognize the importance of making personal commitments in an ambiguous world as opposed to following authority.
Define Multiplicity (William Perry)
Multiplicity marks the transition from dualistic to more relativistic thinking. Individuals in this stage realize the legitimacy of multiple viewpoints and no longer believe authorities hold absolute truth.
Define Commitment to Relativism
Commitment to Relativism refers to the process of choosing and adhering to personal commitments; this is Perry’s highest level of development. During this stage, individuals are able to commit to certain worldviews, while maintaining a sense of awareness and respect for divergent viewpoints. Those in this stage also attempt to balance their personal commitments with societal responsibilities.
Define Oedipus & Electra Complex
Girls unconsciously yearn for their fathers (i.e., the Electra complex) and boys unconsciously yearn for their mothers (i.e., the Oedipal complex)
Phallic Stage- Freud
Ethology
is the study of the adaptive and evolutionary basis of animal behavior; it is concerned with studying the behaviors of species that promote their survival.
species have inborn or instinctual responses which are shared by all members of the species.
Attachment
is an emotional connection with important people in one’s life. Attachment leads to a sense of security and gives people pleasure as they interact with other people whom they are attached.
- Freud’s stages are psychosexual while Erik EriKson’s stages are?
Psychosocial
- In Freud’s psychodynamic theory instincts are emphasized. Erik Erikson is an ego psychologist. Ego psychologist?
believe in man’s power’s of reasoning to control behavior
- The only psychoanalyst who created a developmental theory which encompasses the entire life span was
Erik Erikson
- The statement “the ego is dependent on the id” would most likely reflect the work of
Sigmund Freud, who created psychodynamic theory.
Define Imprinting
The process by which a newly hatched duck will bond with the first moving object they seek, even if it is a human instead of another duck.
Critical periods
certain limited periods of time when humans have the maximum opportunity for optimal development given appropriate environmental inputs.
Sensitive period
A timeframe when responses to development in certain areas will be optimal.
- Jean Piaget’s idiographic approach created his theory with four stages. The correct order from stage 1 to stage 4 is?
a. formal operations, concrete operations, preoperations, sensorimotor
b. formal operations, preoperations, concrete operations, sensorimotor
c. sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, formal operations
d. concrete operations, sensorimotor, preoperations, formal operations
Sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, formal operations.
- Some behavioral scientists have been critical of Swiss child psychologist Jean Piaget’s developmental research inasmuch as…
a. he utilized the t test too frequently
b. he failed to check for Type I or alpha errors
c. he worked primarily with minority children
d. his findings were often derived from observing his own children.
d. his findings were often derived from observing his own children.
- A tall skinny pitcher of water is emptied into a small squatty pitcher. A child indicates that she feels the small pitcher has less water. The child has not yet mastered…
a. symbolic schema
b. conservation
c. androgynous psychosocial issues
d. trust versus mistrust
Conservation- Refers to the notion that a substance’s weight, mass, and volume remain the same even if it changes shape.
A child masters conservation and the concept of reversibility during the concrete operations stage (7-11)
- In Piagetian literature, conservation would most likely refer to…
a. volume or mass
b. defenses of the ego
c. the sensorimotor intelligence stage
d. a specific psychosexual stage of life
volume or mass.
Piaget and Elkind reprt that mass is the first and most easily understood concept. The master of weight is next, and finally the notion of volume can be comprehended. (MWV)
- A child masters conservation in the Piagetian stage known as?
a. formal operations - 12 years and older
b. concrete operations- ages 7-11 years
c. preoperation- ages 2-7 years
d. sensorimotor intelligence- birth to two years
Concrete operationS- ages 7-11
- Who expanded on Piaget’s conceptualization of moral development?
a. Erik Erikson
b. Lev Vygotsky
c. Lawrence Kohlberg
d. John B. Watson
Lawrence Kohlberg
Kohlberg used stories to determine the level of moral development in children.
- According to Jean Piaget, a child master’s the concept of reversibility in the third stage, known as concrete operations or concrete operational thought. This notion suggests…..
a. that heavier objects are more difficult for a child to lift
b. the child is ambidextrous
c. the child is more cognizant of mass than weight
d. one can undo an action, hence an object (say a glass of water) can return to its initial shape.
one can undo an action, hence an object (say a glass of water) can return to its initial shape.
- During a thunderstorm, a 6-year old child in Piaget’s stage of preoperational thought (stage 2) says, “the rain is following me.” This is an example of…
ego centrism- conveys the fact that the child cannot view the world from the vantage point of someone else.
- Lawrence Kohlberg suggested how many levels of morality?
three levels of morality. Preconventional, conventional, postconventional.
- The Heinz dilemma is to Kohlberg’s theory as…
a typing test is to the level of typing skill mastered.
The Heinz dilemma is one method used by Lawrence Kohlberg to assess the level and stage of moral development in an individual.
- The term “identity crisis” comes from the work of…
Erikson. Felt that, in an attempt to find out who they really are, adolescents will experiment with various roles.
- Kohlberg’s three levels of morality are?
Preconventional, conventional, and postconventional
- Trust versus mistrust is…
Erikson’s first stage of psychosocial development
- A person who has successfully mastered Erikson’s first seven stages would be ready to enter Erickson’s final or eighth stage…
integrity versus despair.
Begins at the age of 60. An individual who has successfully mastered all the stages feels a sense of integrity in the sense that his or her life has been worthwhile.
- In Kohlberg’s first or preconventional level, the individual’s moral behavior is guided by…
consequences.
An M&M, treat, or removal of a favorite toy is more important than societal expectations and the law.
- Kohlberg’s second level of morality is known as conventional morality. This level is characterized by…
a desire to live up to society’s expectations and a desire to conform.
The individual wishes to conform to the roles in society so that authority and social order can prevail.
- Kohlberg’s highest level of morality is termed postconventional morality. Here the individual…
has self imposed morals and ethics.
- According to Lawrence Kohlberg, level 3, which is postconventional or self accepted moral principals…
is the highest level of morality. However, some people never reach this level.
- The zone of proximal development…
was pioneered by Lev Vygotsky.
The zone of proximal development describes the differences between a child’s performance without a teacher versus that which he or she is capable of with an instructor.
- Freud and Erikson could be classified as….
maturationists.
The concept of maturation hypothesis suggests that behavior is guided exclusively via hereditary factors, but that certain behaviors will not manifest themselves until the necessary stimuli are present in the environment.
The theory suggests that the individuals neural development must be at a certain level of maturity for the behavior to unfold.
- John Bowlby, the British psychiatrist, is most closely associated with…
bonding and attachment.
Bowlby insisted that in order to lead a normal social life the child must bond with an adult before the age of 3. If the bond is severed at an early age, it is known as “object loss” and this is said to be the breeding ground for abnormal behavior, or what is called psychopathology.
- In which Erikson stage does the midlife crisis occur?
Generativity versus Stagnation.
Midlife crisis occurs between 35-45 for men and about 5 years earlier for women, when the individual realizes his or her life is half over. Persons often need to face the fact that they have not achieved their goals or aspirations.
Generativity refers to the ability to be productive and happy by looking outside one’s self and being concerned with other people.
- The researcher who is well known for his work with maternal deprivation and isolation in rhesus monkeys is
Harry Harlow.
Harlow believed that attachment was an innate tendency and not one which is learned. Monkeys placed in isolation developed autistic abnormal behavior
- Freud postulated the psychosexual stages:
Oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
In adolescence, suicide…
males commit suicide more often than females, but females attempt suicide more often.
One theory is that males are more successful in killing themselves because they use firearms whereas females rely on less lethal methods.
- In the general US population, suicide tends to increas with…
age.
*The fear of death is greatest during…
middle age.
In Erikson’s stages the individual would accept the finality of life better during the final ego identity versus despair stage rather than in the middle-age years.
- In Freudian theory, attachment is a major factor which evolves primarily during what age?
oral age.
The oral stage is the first Freudian psychosexual stage and occurs while the child is still an infant.
- When comparing girls to boys, it could be noted that, in general…
girls grow up to smile more.
girls are using more feeling words by age 2.
girls are better able to read people without verbal cues at any age.
- The Freudian developmental stage which “least” emphasizes sexuality is?
Latency.
Latency is the only Freudian developmental stage which is NOT primarily psychosexual in nature. It occurs between the ages of 6 and 12.
- In terms of parenting young children, who is punished more?
boys are punished more than girls.
- When developmental theorists speak of nature they really mean?
How much heredity or environment interact to influence development.
- True or False. Stage theorist assume qualitative changes between stages occur.
True.
- True or False. Development is a continuous process which begins at conception.
True.
- Development is cephalocaudal, which means
head to foot.
The head of the fetus develops earlier than the legs. Cephalocaudal simply refers to bodily proportions between the head and tail.
- Heredity is the transmission of traits from parents to their offspring and assumes…
the normal person has 23 pairs of chromosomes.
that heredity characteristics are transmitted by chromosomes.
that genes composed of DNA hold a genetic code.
- Piaget’s final stage is known as formal operational stage. In this stage..
abstract thinking emerges and problems can be solved using deduction. A child can think in terms of multiple hypotheses.
Piaget felt that a large number of individuals never really reach this stage.
- Kohlberg lists ______ stages of moral development which fall into _______ levels.
3:6
- A person who lives by his or her individual conscience and universal ethical principals…
has, according to Kohlberg, reached the highest stage of moral development and is in the postconventional level of self-accepted moral principal.
- Freud’s Oedipus complex (or Oedipus Stage)
is the stage in which fantasies of sexual relations with the opposite-sex parent occur.
Occurs during the phallic stage.
The Oedipus complex or phase is the most controversial part of Freud’s theory.
- In girls the oedipus complex may be referred to as?
the Electra Complex.
- The correct order of the Freudian psychosexual or libidinal stages is…
oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital.
Freud is the father of what?
Psychoanalysis, which is the most comprehensive through of personality and therapy ever devised.
- Eleanor Gibson researched the matter of depth perception in children by utilizing?
an apparatus known as a visual cliff.
By the sixth month of life most infants will not attempt to cross the drop-off, thus indicating that depth perception in humans is inherent.
- Theorist who believe that development merely consists of quantitative changes are referred to as?
Empiricists.
Empiricism grew out of the philosophy of John Locke in the 1600s and is sometimes referred to as associationism. According to this theory, scientist can learn only from objective facts.
The philosophy adheres to the principle that experience is the source for acquiring knowledge.
Empiricism is often said to be the forerunner of behaviorism.
- An empiricist view of development would be?
a. psychometric
b. behavioristic
c. against the use of formal statistical testing.
d. A & C
B. Behavioristic
- In the famous experiment by Harry Harlow, frightened monkeys raised via cloth and wire monkeys…
a. showed marked borderline personality traits
b. surprisingly enough became quite friendly
c. demonstrated a distinct lack of emotion
d. ran over and clung to the cloth and wires surrogate mothers
d. ran over and clung to the cloth and wire monkeys.
Ultimately, Harlow discovered that contact was even more important than milk and that monkeys preferred terry-cloth mothers over wire-frame mothers even when both dispensed milk.
- A theorist who views developmental changes as quantitative is said to be an empiricist. The antithesis of this position holds that developmental strides are qualitative. What is the name given to this position?
Organicism.
- In Piaget’s developmental theory, reflexes play the greatest role in which stage?
sensorimotor stage.
- A mother hides a toy behind her back and a young child does not believe the toy exists anymore. The child has not mastered?
Object permanence.
- The schema (i.e., a mental representation of the real world) of permanency and constancy of objects occurs in the?
Sensorimotor stage - birth to 2 years.
- John Bowlby has asserted that
a. attachment is not instinctual
b. attachment is best explained via the Skinnerian principle.
c. a and b
d. conduct disorders and other forms of psychopathology can result from inadequate attachment and bonding in early childhood.
D. conduct disorders an other forms of psychopathology can result from inadequate attachment and bonding in early childhood.
Bowlby, felt that mothers should be the primary caretakers, while the father’s role is to support the mother emotionally rather than nurturing the child himself. Most counselors today would not agree.
- The Harlow experiments utilizing monkeys demonstrated that animals places in isolation during the first few months of life.
a. still develop in a normal fashion.
b. still related very well with animals reared normally.
c. appeared to be autisitc.
d. were fixated in concrete operational thought patterns.
c. appeared to be autistic.
People with autism often have trouble communicating with others and forming close social bonds.
- According to Freudian’s, if a child is severely traumatized, he or she may _________ a given psychosexual stage.
become fixated.
Fixation implies that the individual is unable to go from one developmental stage to the next. The person literally become stuck (or fixated) in a stage where he or she feels safe.
- An expert who has reviewed the literature on videos and violence would conclude that
a. watching violence tends to make children more aggressive.
b. watching violence tends to make children less aggressive.
c. reality TV shows or videos have no impact on a child’s behavior.
d. what adults see as violent, children perceive as caring.
a. watching violence tends to make children more aggressive.
- A counselor who utilizes the term instinctual technically means?
behavior that manifests itself in all normal members of a given species.
Instincts (e.g., hunger) are species-specific innate behaviors that do not need to be practiced or learned. Instincts are NOT learned behavioral responses.
- The word ethology, which is often associated with the work of Konrad Lorenz, refers to
a. Piaget’s famous case study methodology.
b. the study of animals’ behavior in their natural environment.
c. studies on monkeys raised in Skinnerian air cribs.
d. all of the above
b. the study of animals’ behavior in their natural environment.
The study of ethology was developed by European zoologist who tried to explain behavior using Darwinian theory. Today, when counselors refers to ethology, it concerns field research utilizing animals.
Define comparative psychology.
Comparative psychology refers to laboratory research using animals and attempts to generalize the findings to humans.
Konrad Lorenz is best known for?
His work on the process of imprinting, an instinctual behavior in goslings and other animals in which the infant instinctively follows the first moving object it encounters, which is usually the mother.
- A child who focuses exclusively on a clown’s red nose but ignores the clown’s other features would be illustrating the Piagetian concept of?
centration- occurs in the preoperation stage and is characterized by focusing on a key feature of a given object or situation while not noticing the rest of it.
- Piaget felt
a. that homework depresses the elementary child’s IQ
b. strongly that the implementation of Glasser’s concepts in Schools Without Failure should be made mandatory in all elementary settings.
c. that teachers should lecture a minimum of four hours daily.
d. that teachers should lecture less, as children in concrete operations learn best via their own actions and experimentation.
d. that teachers should lecture less, as children in concrete operations learn best via their own actions and experimentation.
- William Glasser is the father of?
Reality therapy with choice theory.
- Piaget’s preoperation stage
a. is the final stage, which includes abstract reasoning.
b. includes mastering conversation.
c. includes the acquisition of a symbolic schema
d. all of the above.
c. includes the acquisition of a symbolic schema
Symbolic mental processes allow language and symbolism in play to occur. A milk cartoon can easily become a spaceship or a pie plate can become the steering wheel of an automobile.
The preoperational stage occurs from ages 2-7 years.
- Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson agreed that
a. each developmental stage needed to be resolved before an individual could move on to the next stage.
b. developmental stages are primarily psychosexual.
c. developmental stages are primarily psychosocial.
d. a person can proceed to a higher stage even if a lower stage is unresolved.
a. each developmental stage needed to be resolved before an individual could move on to the next stage.
- The tendency fro adult females in the United States to wear high heels is best explained by
a. the principle of negative reinforcement
b. sex-role socialization
c. Lorenz’s studies on imprinting
d. ethological data
b. sex-role socialization
In the past the belief was that the differences between men and women were the result of biological factors. However, most counselors today feel that the child “learns” gender identity and male/female roles.
- The sequence of object loss, which goes from protest to despair to detachment, best describes.
a. Freud
b. Adler on birth order
c. Erikson
d. Bowlby
d. Bowlby
In psychoanalysis the term object describes the target of one’s love. Bowlby felt that if the child was unable to bond with an adult by age 3 he or she would be incapable of having normal social relationships as an adult.
- A counselor who is seeing a 15-year old boy who is not doing well in public speaking class would need to keep in mind that
a. in general, boys possess better verbal skills than girls.
b. in general, girls possess better verbal skills than boys.
c. in general, boys have better visual-perceptual skills and are more active and aggressive than girls.
d. b and c
d. b and c
- Two brothers begin screaming at each other during a family counseling session. The term that best describes the phenomenon is
a. the primal scene
b. preconscious psychic processes
c. sibling rivalry
d. BASIC-ID
c. sibling rivalry
Sibling rivalry refers to competition between siblings.
- A preschool child’s concept of causality is said to be animistic. This means the child attributes human characteristics to inanimate objects. Thus, the child may fantasize that an automobile or a rock is talking to him. This concept is best related to..
a. Jung’s concept of anima, animus
b. Freud’s wish fulfillment
c. Piaget’s preoperational period, ages 2-7
d. ego identity
c. Piaget’s preoperational period, ages 2-7
Animism occurs when a child acts as if nonliving objects have lifelike abilities and tendencies.
*Elementary school counseling and guidance services
a. have been popular since the early 1900s
b. became popular during WW II
c. are a fairly new development which did not begin to gain momentum until the 1960’s
d. none of the above
c. are a fairly new development which did not begin to gain momentum until the 1960’s
- Research related to elementary school counselors indicates that…
a. counselors of this ilk work hard, but just don’t seem to have an impact on youngster’s lives
b. these counselors are effective, for make a difference in children’s lives, and more counselors should be employed.
c. counselors of this ilk could be helpful if they would engage in more consultation work.
d. these counselors should be used primarily as disciplinarians, but this is not happening in most districts.
b. these counselors are effective, for make a difference in children’s lives, and more counselors should be employed.
- According to the Yale research by Daniel J. Levinson
a. Erikson’s generativity verus stagnation stage simply does not exist.
b. 80% of the men in the study experiences moderate to severe midlife crisis.
c. an “age 30 crisis” occurs in men when they feel it will soon be too late to make later changes.
d. b and c
d. b and c
- Erikson’s middle-age stage (ages 35-60) is known as generativity versus stagnation. Generativity refers to
a. the ability to do creative work or raise a family
b. the opposite of stagnation
c. the productive ability to create a career, family, and leisure time.
d. all of the above
d. all of the above
A person who does not master this stage well becomes self-centered: hence, you also will see the stage termed “generativity” versus “self-absorption”.
- A person who can look back on his or her life with few regrets feels…
a. the burden of senile psychosis
b. ego-integrity in Erikson’s integrity versus despair stage
c. despair, which is the sense that he or she has wasted life’s precious opportunities.
d. the burden of generalized anxiety disorder as described in the DSM, published by the American Psychiatric Association
b. ego-integrity in Erikson’s integrity versus despair stage
- Sensorimotor is to Piaget as oral is to Freud, and as _______ is to Erikson.
trust versus mistrust
- Which theorist was most concerned with maternal deprivation?
Harry Harlow.
He is best known for his work with rhesus monkeys at the university of Wisconsin.
- When development comes to a halt, counselors say that the client
a. has “learned helplessness” syndrome
b. suffers from a phobia
c. suffers from fixation
d. is displaying the risky shift phenomenon
c. suffers from fixation
- Kohlberg proposed three levels of morality. Freud, on the other had, felt morality developed from the.
a. superego
b. ego
c. id
e. eros
a. superego
- Which theorist would be most likely to say that aggression is an inborn tendency?
a. Carl Rogers
b. B.F. Skinner
c. Frank Parsons, the father of guidance
d. Konrad Lorenz
d. Konrad Lorenz
Konrad Lorenz compared us to the wolf or the baboon and claimed that we are naturally aggressive. According, to Lorenz, aggressiveness is part of our evolution and was necessary for survival.
The solution according to Lorenz is for us to utilize catharsis and get our anger out, using methods such as competitive sports.
Who has been called the Father of Guidance
Frank Parsons
- The statement “bad behavior is punished, good behavior is not” is most closely associated with?
a. Kohlberg’s premoral stage at the preconventional level
b. Kohlberg’s conventional level
c. the work of Carl Jung
d. Piaget’s autonomous stage, which begins at about age 8
a. Kohlberg’s premoral stage at the preconventional level
- A critical period
a. makes imprinting possible
b. emphasizes manifest dream content
c. signifies a special time when a behavior must be learned or the behavior won’t be learned at all.
d. a and c
d. a and c.
- Imprinting-rapid learning during a critical period of development- is an instinct in which a newborn will follow a moving object. The primary work in this area was done by?
a. Erik Erikson
b. Milton H. Erickson
c. Konrad Lorenz
d. Harry Harlow
c. Konrad Lorenz
- Marital satisfaction
a. is usually highest when a child is old enough to leave home.
b. often decreases with parenthood and often improves after a child leaves home.
c. correlates high with performance IQ
d. is highest among couples who have seven or more college-educated children
b. often decreases with parenthood and often improves after a child leaves home.
- Maslow, a humanistic psychologist, is famous for his “hierarchy of needs” which postulates
a. lower-order physiological and safety needs and higher order needs, such as self-actualization
b. that psychopathology rests with the id.
c. that unconscious drives control self-actualization
d. that stimulus-response (S-R) psychology dictates behavioral attributes
a. lower-order physiological and safety needs and higher order needs, such as self-actualization
- To reach the dilemma of self-actualization, Maslow
a. used goslings as did Konrad Lorenz
b. psychoanalyzed over 400 neurotics
c. worked exclusively with schizophrenics in residential settings.
d. interviewed the best people he could find who escaped “the psychology of the average”.
d. interviewed the best people he could find who escaped “the psychology of the average”.
Work with those who have transcended the so-called average or normal existence
- Piaget is
a. a maturationist
b. a behaviorist
c. a structuralist who believes stage changes are qualitative
d. cognitive-behavioral
c. a structuralist who believes stage changes are qualitative
- ___________ factors cause Down Syndrome, the most common type known as trisomy 21.
a. environmental
b. genetic (conditions passed through genes)
c. Chemical dependency
d. unconscious
b. genetic
Down syndrome, which is the result of a chromosomal abnormality (such as trisomy 21, three chromosomes on chromosome 21) results in an IQ hovering between 50 and 80 (100 is normal).
- Piaget referred to the act of taking in new information as assimilation. This results in accommodation, which is a modification of the child’s cognitive structures (schemas) to deal with the new information. In Piagetian nomenclature, the balance between assimilation and accommodation is called?
a. counterbalance
b. equilibration
c. balance theory
d. ABA design
b. equilibration
Define Psychometrics
is the design, administration and interpretation of test that measure intelligence, aptitude and personality characteristics.
Define psychopharmacology
is the study of the effects of drugs on psychological functions.
Define In Vivo Desensitization
is a behavior therapy technique in which a person is gradually exposed to something he fears.
- There are behavioral, structural, and maturational theories of development. The maturational viewpoint utilizes the plant growth analogy, in which the mind is seen as being driven by instincts while the environment provides nourishment, thus placing limits on development. Counselors who are maturationists…
a. conduct therapy in the here and now
b. focus primarily on nonverbal behavior
c. believe group work is most effective
d. allow clients to work through early conflicts
d. allow clients to work through early conflicts
- Ritualistic behaviors, which are common to all members of a species, are known as…
a. hysteria
b. pica
c. fixed-action patterns elicited by sign stimuli
d. dysfunctional repetition
c. fixed-action patterns elicited by sign stimuli
Theoretically, a fixed-action pattern (abbreviated FAP) will result whenever a releaser in the environment is present. The preprogrammed action, or sequence of behavior, will not vary.
- Robert Kegan speaks of a “holding environment” in counseling which…
a. the client is urged to relive a traumatic experience in an encounter group.
b. biofeedback training is highly recommended
c. the client can make meaning in the face of a crisis and can find new direction.
d. the activity of meaning making is discouraged.
c. the client can make meaning in the face of a crisis and can find new direction.
- Most experts in the field of counseling agree that…
a. no one theory completely explains developmental processes; thus, counselors ought to be familiar with all the major theories.
b. Eriksonian theory should be used by counselors practicing virtually any modality.
c. a counselor who incorporates Piaget’s stages into his or her thinking would not necessarily need knowledge of rival therapeutic viewpoints.
d. a realistic counselors needs to pick one developmental theory in the same manner that he or she picks a psychotherapeutic persuasion.
a. no one theory completely explains developmental processes; thus, counselors ought to be familiar with all the major theories.
- Equilibration is…
a. a term which emphasizes the equality between the sexes
b. performed via the id according to the Freudians
c. a synonym for concrete operational thought
d. the balance between what one takes in (assimilation) and that which is changed (accommodation).
d. the balance between what one takes in (assimilation) and that which is changed (accommodation).
Equilibration (or equilibrium) occurs when the child achieves balance. When new information is presented which the child’s current cognitive structures, known as “schemas” cannot process, a condition referred to as “disequilibrium” sets in. The child therefore changes the achemas to accommodate the novel information, and equilibration or equilibrium is masters.
- A counselor is working with a family who just lost everything in a fire. The counselor will ideally focus on…
a. Maslow’s higher-order needs, such as self-actualization
b. building accurate empathy of family members
c. Maslow’s lower-order needs, such as physiological and safety needs.
d. the identified patient
c. Maslow’s lower-order needs, such as physiological and safety needs.
- The anal retentive personality is…
a. charitable
b. stingy
c. kind
d. thinks very little about money matters
b. stingy
- From a Freudian perspective, a client who has a problem with alcoholism and excessive smoking would be…
a. considered an oral character
b. considered an anal character
c. considered a genital character
d. fixated at the latency stage
a. considered an oral character
Define active development
Active development- The view that children actively construct their own worlds and initiate their own growth.
Define passive development
Passive development- The view that children are passively shaped by their environments.
Define canalization
The process by which, for some traits, humans are restricted to a small number of outcomes simply as a function of their genes.
Traits that are mostly genetically predetermined, with little opportunity for environmental influence, are thus said to be canalized.
Define- Passive geno-type environment correlations
The view that parents provide both genes and environment, which influence the child’s development.
An example of this would be if a child has parents who enjoy and have talent in artistic endeavors such as painting and drawing. These parents are likely to provide their child with art materials and instruction and practice creating art. Thus, the child is likely to become a skilled artist who enjoys expressing himself creatively, due to both his genotype and the environment provided by his parents.
Define- Evocative geno-type environment correlations
The view that the FEATURES of the child, which are influenced by his genes, evoke reactions from others toward him, and these responses then further shape the child’s development.
For example, a child who has long, thin fingers might be encouraged to play the piano by his parents. His parents might then purchase a piano or send him to piano lessons. Thus, the child’s genotype influences the environment that is provided for him.
Define- Active geno-type environment correlations
The view that the child seeks out environments consistent with his genetic makeup and thereby creates his own environment, which then strengthens his inherent qualities.
For example, a child who is genetically predisposed to be open to new experiences will actively seek out new activities to pursue and new people to meet. The more the child seeks out new experiences and enjoys them, the more likely he will be to continue to seek out additional new experiences. Thus, the initial experiences driven by a child’s genotype lead to further experiences.
Define Epigenesis
The idea that environments shape our genetic expressions, which in turn further shape our environments.
Thus, epigenesis goes one step further back than Scarr and McCartney’s (1983) model by positing the importance of the environment and experience on initial gene expression. For example, hormone levels are affected by experiences in our environment such as the length of sunlight on a given day, nutrition, toxins, and stress. These hormone levels then affect protein production, and can thus turn on certain genes to allow for their phenotypic expression or keep them shut off.
Erford, Bradley. An Advanced Lifespan Odyssey for Counseling Professionals (p. 15). Cengage Learning. Kindle Edition.
What are the four systems of the ecological model of development purposed by Bronfenbrenner?
Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, and Macrosystem
Define Bronfenbrenner’s Microsystem
Bronfenbrenner (1994) defines the microsystem as a pattern of “activities, social roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by the developing person in a given face-to-face setting with particular physical, social, and symbolic features that invite, permit, or inhibit engagement in sustained, progressively more complex interaction with, and activity in, the immediate environment”
Define Bronfenbrenner’s Mesosystem
The mesosystem is defined as the connections and relationships between two or more microsystems. Examples of mesosystems include the linkages between home and school or neighborhood and school. Problems in one microsystem can spill over into other microsystems, affecting them as well.
Define Bronfenbrenner’s Exosystem
The exosystem is defined as the connections and relationships between two or more settings, at least one of which the developing child does not experience directly. Even though the child does not experience these settings directly, the exosystems still indirectly influence the development of the child by shaping the behavior of people who interact with the child or by defining a larger context that affects the child’s life (Steinberg et al., 2011). Examples of exosystems include the relationships between the home and a parent’s workplace or between the school and the community.
Define Bronfenbrenner’s Macrosystem
The outermost system in Bronfenbrenner’s (1994) model is the macrosystem, which is the overarching cultural context in which the other systems are embedded. The macrosystem includes the various beliefs, values, customs, lifestyles, and political and social institutions and events that characterize a culture. Cultural groups include people of different ethnic heritages, socioeconomic statuses, sexual orientations, disability statuses, or religious worldviews. We are all members of many cultural groups at once, and we are influenced by all of these cultural contexts in some way.
Define Stage Theories
Stage theories propose that human development across the lifespan changes abruptly via rapid transformations that propel individuals from one stage of functioning to the next, where they remain quite stable for long periods of time. Each stage of functioning is seen as qualitatively different from the previous stage because individuals have achieved markedly new ways of thinking and behaving. Although some children move through these designated stages faster or slower than others, all children are believed to progress through these stages in the same order.
Define Incremental Theories
Incremental theories are essentially the opposite of stage theories. Rather than viewing development as long periods of stability interrupted by drastic, qualitative changes in functioning, incremental theorists believe development progresses along a gradual, continuous path, constantly building upon itself little by little. Recall from the previous section regarding discontinuous versus continuous development that incremental theorists conceptualize development as following the smooth path of an escalator. In summary, incremental theorists see change as gradual, steady, and specific to particular abilities rather than encompassing broad reorganizations.
