Human Growth and Development

Question 1

Erik Erikson

Answer 1

Interested in how children socialize and how this affects their sense of self. He saw personality as developing throughout the life course and looked at identity crises as the focal point for each stage of human development

Question 2

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development

Answer 2

1. Trust versus mistrust (birth - 1 year old)
2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (ages 1 - 3 )
3. Initiative versus guilt (ages 3 - 6)
4. Industry versus inferiority (ages 6 - puberty)
5. Identity versus role confusion (adolescence - adulthood)
6. Intimacy versus isolation (young adulthood)
7. Generativity versus stagnation (middle adulthood)
8. Ego integrity versus despair (older adulthood)

Question 3

Trust versus mistrust (Erikson’s stages)

Answer 3

From birth to one year, children begin to learn the ability to trust others based upon the consistency of their caregivers. Trust gives a sense of security in the world. Unsuccessful completion of this stage leads to an inability to trust, and therefore a sense of fear about the inconsistent world. May result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and feelings of mistrust.

Question 4

Autonomy versus shame and doubt (Erikson’s stages)

Answer 4

Between ages 1 and 3, children begin to assert their independence by walking away from their mother, picking up what toy to play with, and making choices about what to wear, eat, and so on. If children are overly criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others while lacking self-esteem and feeling a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities

Question 5

Initiative versus guilt (Erikson’s stages)

Answer 5

Around age 3 - 6, children assert themselves more frequently. They begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. If this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to others and lack self-initiative.

Question 6

Industry versus inferiority (Erikson’s stages)

Answer 6

6 - puberty children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. They initiate projects, see them through to completion, and feel good about what they achieved. If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this is not encouraged, children begin to feel inferior, doubting their abilities, and failing to reach their potential.

Question 7

Identity versus role confusion (Erikson’s stages)

Answer 7

During this period, children explore possibilities and begin to form their own identities based upon the outcome of their explorations. This sense of who they are can be hindered, which results in a sense of confusion (“I don’t know what I want to do when I grow up”) about themselves and their role in the world.

Question 8

Intimacy versus isolation (Erikson’s stages)

Answer 8

individuals begin to share themselves more intimately with others and explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with others outside the family. Successful completion can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy and fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.

Question 9

Generativity versus stagnation (Erikson’s stages)

Answer 9

Individuals in middle adulthood establish careers, settle down within relationships, begin families, and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. They give back to society through raising children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, individuals become stagnant and feel unproductive.

Question 10

Ego integrity versus despair (Erikson’s stages)

Answer 10

During older adulthood, if individuals see their lives as being unproductive and failing to accomplish life goals, they become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

Question 11

Social development

Answer 11

On a micro level, social development is learning how to behave and interact well with others. Social development relies on emotional development or learning how to manage feelings. On a macro level, social development is about a commitment that development processes need to benefit people, particularly, but not only, the poor. It also recognizes the way people interact in groups and society, and the norms that facilitate such interaction

Question 12

Emotional Development

Answer 12

This area emphasizes many skills that increase self-awareness and self-regulation. Social skills and emotional development are reflected in the ability to pay attention, make transitions from one activity to another, and cooperate with others

Question 13

Cognitive Development

Answer 13

Focuses on development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of brain development. It is the emergence of the ability to think and understand. “Nature versus Nurture” has been a major controversy that is now regarded as a false dichotomy. It is the combo of the two!

Question 14

Six levels of Cognition

Answer 14

1. Knowledge - rote memorization, recognition, recollection of facts
2. Comprehension - understanding what the facts mean
3. Application - correct use of the facts, rules, or ideas
4. Analysis - breaking down information into component parts
5. Synthesis - combination of facts, ideas, or information to make a new whole
6. Evaluation - judging or forming an opinion about the information or situation

Question 15

Clients may have goals to learn in any of three domains of development:

Answer 15

1. Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge)
2. Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self)
3. Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (skills)

Question 16

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Answer 16

1. sensorimotor (0-2 years)
2. Preoperational (2-7 years)
3. concrete operations (7-11 years)
4. formal operations (11 through maturity)

Question 17

Sensorimotor (Piaget’s Theory of Cog Dev)

Answer 17

coordination of senses with motor responses, sensory curiosity about the world. Language used for demands and cataloguing. Object permanence is developed.

Question 18

Preoperational (Piaget’s Theory of Cog Dev)

Answer 18

Symbolic thinking, use of proper syntax and grammar to express concepts. Imagination and intuition are strong, but complex abstract thoughts are still difficult. Conservation is developed.

Question 19

Concrete operational (Piaget’s Theory of Cog Dev)

Answer 19

concepts attached to concrete situations. Time, space, and quantity are understood and can be applied, but not as independent concepts. Play games with rules. Cause and effect is understood.

Question 20

Formal operational (Piaget’s Theory of Cog Dev)

Answer 20

Theoretical, hypothetical, and counterfactual thinking. Abstract logic and reasoning. Strategy and planning become possible. Concepts learned in one context can be applied to another

Question 21

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Answer 21

1. Preconventional - Elementary school level - (before age 9)
2. Conventional - follow stereotypic norms of morality - (early adolescence)
3. Postconventional - this level is not reached by most adults - adult

Question 22

Preconventional (Kohlberg’s moral dev)

Answer 22

1. child obeys an authority figure out of fear of punishment. Obedience/punishment.
2. child acts acceptably as it is in her or his best interests. Conforms to rules to receive rewards

Question 23

Conventional

Answer 23

3. Person acts to gain approval from others. “Good boy/Good girl” orientation.
4. Obeys laws and fulfills obligations and duties to maintain social system. Rules are rules. Avoids censure and guilt.

Question 24

Postconventional

Answer 24

5. Genuine interest in welfare of others; concerned with individual rights and being morally right.
6. Guided by individual principles based on broad, universal ethical principles. Concern for larger universal issues of morality

Question 25

Learning theory (and types of theories)

Answer 25

Conceptual framework describing how information is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning. Learning theorists can be broken into:

1. Behaviorist (pavlov, skinner) - learning is viewed through change in behavior and the stimuli in the external environment.
2. Cognitive (Piaget) - learning is viewed through internal mental processes and the locus of learning is internal cognitive structures.
3. Humanistic (Maslow) - learning is viewed through a person’s activities aimed at reaching his or her full potential, and the locus of learning is in meeting cognitive and other needs.
4. Social/Situational (Bandura) - learning is obtained between people and their environment and their interactions and observations in social contexts.

Question 26

Behavioral Development

Answer 26

Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. These theories represent the systematic application of principles of learning to the analysis and treatment of behaviors. Behaviors determine feelings. Thus, changing behaviors will also change or eliminate undesired feelings. The goal is to modify behavior.

Question 27

Two fundamental classes of behavior:

Answer 27

1. Respondent: (Pavlov) involuntary behavior (anxiety, sexual response) that is automatically elicited by certain behavior. A stimulus elicits a response
2. Operant: (Skinner) voluntary behavior (walking, talking) that is controlled by its consequences in the environment

• Best known applications of behavior modification are sexual dysfunction, phobic disorders, compulsive behaviors (i.e., overeating, smoking), and training of persons with intellectual disabilities and/or Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Question 28

Respondent or Classical Conditioning

Answer 28

learning occurs as a result of pairing previously neutral (conditioned) stimulus with an unconditioned (involuntary) stimulus so that the conditioned stimulus elicits the response normally elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. (Pairing dogs drooling to sound of bell instead of food because they now associate the bell with food)

Question 29

Operant Conditioning

Answer 29

Antecedent events or stimuli precede behaviors, which, in turn, are followed by consequences. Consequences that increase the occurrence of the behavior are referred to as reinforcing consequences; consequences that decrease the occurrence of the behavior are referred to as punishing consequences. Reinforcement aims to increase behavior frequency, whereas punishment aims to decrease it.

Positive reinforcement = increasing probability that behavior will occur. Praising, giving tokens, and otherwise rewarding positive behavior
Negative reinforcement = behavior increases because a negative stimulus is removed (i.e. take antacid before spicy meal)
Positive punishment = presentation of undesirable stimulus following a behavior for the purpose of decreasing or eliminating that behavior (i.e., hitting, scolding)
Negative punishment = presentation of desirable stimulus following a behavior for the purpose of decreasing or eliminating that behavior (i.e., taking a toy away or no dessert)

Question 30

Aversion therapy

Answer 30

Any treatment aimed at reducing the attractiveness of a stimulus or behavior by repeated pairing of it with an aversive stimulus. An example of this is treating alcohol abuse with Antabuse.

Question 31

Biofeedback

Answer 31

Behavior training program that teaches a person how to control certain functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, temperature, and muscular tension. Biofeedback is often used for ADHD and anxiety disorders

Question 32

Extinction

Answer 32

Refers to the fading and disappearance of behavior that was previously learned by association with another event. That means a conditioned response is weakened and the target behavior eventually stops and becomes extinct. This is usually accomplished by withdrawing the unconditioned stimulus.

Example: A toddler previously learned that throwing a tantrum at the grocery store will get him candies. When Mom stops giving in to those fits, the child throws fewer and fewer tantrums and stops altogether eventually. The learned tantrums have been extinct.

Question 33

Flooding

Answer 33

A treatment procedure in which a client’s anxiety is extinguished by prolonged real or imagined exposure to high-intensity feared stimuli

Question 34

In vivo desensitization

Answer 34

Pairing and movement through a hierarchy of anxiety, from least to most anxiety provoking situations; takes place in a “real” setting

Question 35

Modeling

Answer 35

Method of instruction that involves an individual (the model) demonstrating the behavior to be acquired by a client.

Question 36

Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)

Answer 36

A cognitive oriented therapy in which a social worker seeks to change a client’s irrational beliefs by argument, persuasion, and rational evaluation and by teaching a client to counter self-defeated thinking with new, nondistressing self-statements.

It is a type of CBT

Question 37

Shaping

Answer 37

Method used to train a new behavior by prompting and reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior. (e.g., successive rewards to reach desired behavior, such as for a student who hates talking in class..reward him when he stands up, reward when he opens up and tries to read, reward when he reads).

Question 38

Systematic Desensitization

Answer 38

An anxiety-inhibiting response cannot occur at the same time as the anxiety response. Anxiety-producing stimulus is paired with relaxation-producing response so that eventually an anxiety-producing stimulus produces a relaxation response. At each step a client’s reaction of fear or dread is overcome by pleasant feelings engendered as the new behavior is reinforced by receiving a reward. The reward could be a compliment, a gift, or relaxation.

Question 39

Time out

Answer 39

Removal of something desirable - negative punishment technique

Question 40

Token economy

Answer 40

A client receives tokens as reinforcement for performing specified behaviors. The tokens function as currency within the environment and can be exchanged for desired goods, services, or privileges.

Question 41

Infant and Toddlers (age 0-3). Describe physical, mental, and social objectives

Answer 41

Physical - should be growing rapidly
Mental - learns through senses, exploring, playing, communicates by crying, babbling, then “baby talk”, simple sentences
Social-Emotional - seeks to build trust in others, dependent, beginning to develop a sense of self

Question 42

Young Children (age 4-6). Describe physical, mental, and social-emotional objectives

Answer 42

Physical- grows at a slower rate; improving motor skills; dresses self, toilet trained
Mental - begins to use symbols; improving memory; vivid imagination, fears; likes stories
Social Emotional - identifies with parents; becomes more independent; sensitive to others’ feelings

Question 43

Older Children (ages 7-12)