human geography Flashcards
urbanisation
urbanisation —> increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas
causes of urbanisation:
- rural to urban migration —> happens due to push and pull factors
- natural increase (birth rate higher than death rate) —> many migrants in urban areas are young adults —> more likely to have children —> population increases further —> natural increase contributes to roughly 60% of urban growth
consequences of urbanisation:
urban sprawl —> spread of an urban area into the surrounding countryside
- more car dependant lifestyle leads to increases in fossil fuel consumption —> increases pollution —> trigger different microclimate responses/impacts health
- loss of farmland —> loss of fresh local food sources —> greater food miles
- leads to wildlife habitat loss
- more houses —> impermeable surfaces —> flood risk increases
shortage of housing in LICs:
- leads to informal settlements —> these settlements have limited access to basic necessities and services —> more likely to be ill —> can’t go to work —> have to continue living in these settlements
- dharavi slum —> people will build houses for themselves —> slum conditions are poor —> 1000 people sharing a toilet and approximately 14 people living in one room
shortage of affordable housing in HICs:
- urban planners have built sky scrapers —> small flats come with social problems —> many people in tokyo face issues with social interaction and spend vast quantities of time by themselves —> birth rate has decreased rapidly to 7.8 births per 1000 population —> creates an ageing population which creates issues —> less people working so less taxes —> less government spending on healthcare which the ageing population need
lack of urban services:
- when more people move to cities, the demand for services increases —> lack of urban services due to high demand—> ill —> can’t go to work —> can’t pay tax
unemployment:
- high proportion of people who move to cities are young —> lots of pressure on jobs —> some people unable to find one due to high proportion of people wanting a job
suburbanisation
suburbanisation —> movement of people from city centres to the suburbs
why does it occur?
city centres become overcrowded due to urbanisation —> people desire more space so they move
what has allowed suburbanisation to take place?
- improvements in transport links —> people can commute to work
- better communications —> people can work at home
negatives of suburbanisation?
- can lead to economic and ethnic segregation —> wealthier middle-class people may move to the suburbs and those that are left behind are poorer and may include foreign immigrants
- diversion of funding away from inner city areas to the suburbs to pay for new infrastructure and services
counter urbanisation
counter urbanisation —> movement of people from urban areas to rural areas
why does it occur?
city centres become overcrowded due to urbanisation —> people desire more space so they move
what has allowed counter urbanisation to take place?
- improvements in transport links —> people can commute to work
- better communications —> people can work at home
negatives of counter urbanisation?
- can lead to economic and ethnic segregation —> wealthier middle-class people may move to rural areas and those that are left behind are poorer and may include foreign immigrants
- diversion of funding away from inner city areas to rural areas
urban resurgence
Urban resurgence —> regeneration of an area after a period of decline (deindustrialisation) —> movement of people back into the city
How did they try regenerate areas after decline?
- Convert derelict buildings and industrial areas into houses
- Create new jobs —> more tax
- Enhance the environment through the creation of open green spaces —> more CO2 taken in
Deindustrialisation and resurgence in Leeds?
- During the Industrial Revolution, Leeds developed into a major mill town —> In 1950, 55% of the Leeds workforce was employed in manufacturing but by 1960 this had declined to 35% —> jobs lost —> less income —> less money spent in goods/services so shops relocate —> decline of area
- Leeds Trinity opened in 2013 and transformed the centre —> attracted more people into Leeds
- Leeds arena opened —> attracts people into the city
how have the number of people living in urban areas changed since 1945 (overall, developed and developing countries?
overall:
- globally, the number of people living in urban areas has increased dramatically since 1945. in 1950, 30% of people lived in urban areas. in 2014, just over 50% lived in towns or cities
developed:
- the population has only increased slightly since 1945 —> this is because urbanisation began much earlier in the developed world. e.g. during the industrial revolution
developing:
- in the developing world, urbanisation is happening at a quicker rate —> number of people has increased significantly
push and pull factors
push factors:
• Lack of services —> e.g. healthcare and education
• Agricultural problems —> desertification —> crop failure —> less food and less income
• Lack of job opportunities
pull factors:
• Better services —> e.g. healthcare and education —> more likely to go to work/school —> more tax
• Family members live there
• Better job opportunities
deindustrialisation
deindustrialisation —> decrease in the amount of manufacturing taking place in a country
causes of deindustrialisation:
- mechanisation —> cheaper to use machines rather than people
- competition from abroad —> cheaper labour and manufacturing costs in countries such as china
how are job losses different between cities and in cities?
- Between cities —> this depends on the size and composition of the economy e.g. large cities may have more diverse economies which can make them more resilient to job losses
- Within cities —> inner city areas suffer the most —> most industrial areas are located here
how did it affect the UK?
entire industries collapsed e.g. steel industry in sheffield —> caused mass unemployment with 3 million being out of work
what did deindustrialisation lead to?
rise of the service economy —> in 2015, the service sector accounted for 77% of the UKs economy
rise of the service economy is due to:
- better education —> more people in tertiary jobs
- reduction in manufacturing jobs
- increasing demand for services
deindustrialisation
deindustrialisation (decrease in manufacturing) —> people unemployed —> less money to spend —> local shops and services get less income —> schools and shops etc start to close —> low investor confidence
deindustrialisation (decrease in manufacturing) —> people unemployed —> less money to spend —> increase in burglary —> people move out of the area —> services and shops start to close —> low investor confidence
deindustrialisation —> industrial buildings become derelict —> increase in graffiti etc —> people move out of the area —> services and shops start to close —> low investor confidence
decentralisation
decentralisation —> as land prices in city centres increase, businesses may relocate to suburbs e.g. meadowhall near sheffield
positives of decentralisation?
-can improve the profile of a town
-more room for expansion
-land prices are cheaper
negatives of decentralisation?
-decentralisation —> attracts ppl to suburb areas —> less ppl in the city —> less demand for goods/services in the city —> city centre shops/services start to close —> urban decline
-increase the reliance on car —> greater pollution
how do cities develop as they urbanise?
economic:
- Cities attract people from rural areas as there are more job opportunities and jobs are often better paid
- As urban population increases, businesses grow in size and become more profitable —> this leads to more jobs and wage rises
- Urbanisation leads to a shift in employment from the primary sector to the tertiary sector —> increased demand for services in the city due to standard of living being better
social:
- Cities have better access to healthcare and education, which attracts people —> population increases
- As more people move to a city, it can become a centre for cultural expression e.g. museums and art galleries open
- The migration of people into urban areas increases the mix of people from different social backgrounds —> this can make people more tolerant of others, creating a welcoming environment that attracts more migrants// however segregation of people from different social backgrounds is also common
political:
- Urban growth may lead to increased inequalities between rich and poor people —> a new working class emerges, often made up of people who work in manufacturing industries —> new political movements emerge to represent the ‘working class’ population —> political reform focuses on issues that affect urban life e.g. poor sanitation, quality of housing, working conditions in factories
demographic:
* cities have become more culturally and ethnically diverse as more migrants have been attracted from all over the world —> new areas emerge e.g. Chinatown in New York City
* many young people are attracted by jobs and entertainment —> they often choose to stay and raise families in the city, so cities tend to have a younger population than rural areas
technological:
4 regeneration projects to regenerate cities since 1979
Urban Development corporation
City Challenge
New Deal for communities
Enterprise zones
city challenge
City Challenge —> Local authorities competed against each other for government funding to regenerate deprived urban areas
- The Manchester authority won the challenge with their proposal to regenerate Hulme
Issues in Hulme?
- Of the 5,500 dwellings in the Hulme area of Manchester, 98% were council owned
- There was a high number of single parents, and other people with social difficulties. There was some evidence that the local authority had used the area to dump some of its more unfortunate residents
- Perception of Hulme was bad so no one wanted to live there —> area went into decline
Redevelopment?
- 3,000 new homes were built
- The main shopping area was totally refurbished, including the addition of an ASDA supermarket.
- The Moss Side Sports Centre was updated in 2002 and is now a modern facility widely used by the community
Positives?
Economic:
- Shopping area being refurbished and addition of asda created jobs
- New road infrastructure was constructed —> easier to travel to places for work etc —> attracted more people into the area
Social:
- 3000 new homes were built
- The main shopping area was totally refurbished, including the addition of an ASDA supermarket
- The Moss Side Sports Centre was updated in 2002 and is now a modern facility widely used by the community
- These all make the area more attractive
Environmental:
- Variation in the type of building was introduced to make the area appear more interesting
Successes:
- Hulme’s population has grown by 3.3% since 1992
- Of the original goals of regeneration of Hulme, it is estimated that 80% of them have been achieved
- It was found that crime levels had gone down, with the police reporting a 40% reduction in crimes
Failings:
- Unemployment rates in 2003 remained 5-6x higher than the national average
- The bid was awarded based on the most attractive ideas rather than based on need (negative of city challenge)
- A lot of deprived areas didn’t receive any funding (negative of city challenge)
urban development corporations
what is the UDC?
- in the 1980s —> the government set up the UDCs to try and reverse inner city decline —> aim was to regenerate inner city areas
- they set up the LDDC
in the 19th century, londons port was one of the busiest in the world but by the end of the 1950s, it was in significant decline with many of the docks derelict and abandoned
why did the docks go into decline and why did the area go into decline?
- containerisation —> few dockers were needed to lift containers from ships —> reduced demand for workforce —> fewer jobs in area —> travel further for work —> transport services to the rest of london were poor —> fewer people working —> less income —> less spent on goods and services —> shops started to close —> area went into decline
- environmental quality of area was bad
positives of LDDC?
environmental:
- planting of 200,000 trees
economic:
- unemployment had fallen from 14% to around 7%
- transport improved —> docklands light railway —> carried 35,000 passengers a week —> improved accessibility
social:
- 22,000 new homes built
- £100 million spent on health, education and job training
issues of LDDC?
- despite increased accessibility to jobs, dockers did not have the skills required
new deal for communities
New deal for communities- 10 year strategies that were established to help the 39 most deprived regions of the country —> local communities in those areas were involved in helping to find solutions to the problems they were facing
Case study:
- Aston, inner city Birmingham —> identified as one of the 39 most deprived regions in the country
Issues in Aston?
- Poor health (poor diet inherited from the cultural background)
- High levels of unemployment —> in 2002, 36% of the working age population was unemployed —> predominantly muslim population —> lifestyle requirements such as friday afternoon prayers and english may not be their first language —> not easily employable —> if unemployed then no money —> area goes into decline
What was done?
- £4 million was spent on healthcare —> life expectancy is improving in Aston
- Health centre has introduced cooking clubs —> gives advice to people about healthier meals
- Project was set a target to help 400 unemployed people find work —> they managed to help around 1000 people through work experience programmes and a guidance team
Issues?
- The increased development in cities resulted in town centres being rundown —> more time and money centred on cities instead of towns —> moves the problem to another area
enterprise zones
Enterprise Zones —> In 1981, enterprise zones were established in areas with high unemployment —> they offered lower taxes to businesses and also eased planning restrictions
- High unemployment —> less money to spend on goods and services —> increase in burglary —> people move out of the area —> shops and services start to close —> area goes into decline —> enterprise zones
Positives?
- By 1990, the enterprise zones housed over 5000 companies, employing more than 125 000 people
Issues?
- Tax reductions encouraged many existing companies to move their premises and staff to the enterprise zones which limited the number of new jobs created
Example?
The Metro Centre Gateshead was established as an enterprise zone on an old industrial site (a power station) in which the land was bought for just £100,000
megacities
megacity —> a city with over 10 million people
megacity statistics?
- in 1950, there were 2 megacities - tokyo and new york
- by 2014, there were 28 megacities
- by 2030, it’s predicted to rise to 41
- more than two thirds of megacities are in developing nations e.g. lagos in nigeria
why do megacities grow?
rural-urban migration and natural increase
are people in megacities equal?
inequality exists in megacities —> megacities often have people living at opposite extremes —> some are really rich whilst others live in extreme poverty —> social segregation
positives?
- Companies choose to build their headquarters in cities with a high number of skilled workers—> leads to economic growth —> on average megacities produce 2-3 times more GDP than other cities
- Better education and healthcare in megacities —> able to go to work —> more tax paid
negatives?
- pollution —> impacts health
HICs:
- more money —> urban planners are often able to cope with pollution levels better e.g. by planting more trees, implementing more sustainable transport options, congestion charge
- urban areas are growing much slower so controlling pollution levels is much more manageable
LICs (mumbai)
- limited funding so issues like pollution are harder to address —> in 2015, the central pollution control board found that over half of india’s rivers were polluted —> impacts human health e.g. diseases like cholera spread —> affects ability to work and gain income
- urban areas are growing at a faster rate so controlling pollution is harder
-
shortage of housing
HICs (tokyo) - urban planners have built sky scrapers —> small flats come with social problems —> many people in tokyo face issues with social interaction and spend vast quantities of time by themselves —> birth rate has decreased rapidly to 7.8 births per 1000 population —> creates an ageing population which creates issues —> less people working so less taxes —> less government spending on healthcare which the ageing population need
LICs (mumbai)
- dharavi slum —> people will build houses for themselves —> slum conditions are poor —> 1000 people sharing a toilet and approximately 14 people living in one room
world cities
world city —> a city that has political and financial influence over the whole world —> unlike megacities, they are not defined by their size or population, but by their global influence
examples of world cities:
- london and new york —> leaders in banking and finance —> many banking companies such as HSBC locate their headquarters there
- lagos is an oil rich country —> oil rich countries have become increasingly important in global economics and business
- tokyo is extremely influential in international trade between east asian countries —> (world cities are connected to the rest of the world via excellent transport links)
number of world cities changing overtime?
- in 1950, there were only 4 world cities —> london, paris, tokyo and new york
role of world cities in the global economy?
- world cities are generally home to world-leading universities —> attracting lots of people to the area
- high numbers of tourists to visit world cities
- people may go to world cities in search of work
where is mumbai located and fact about population
Mumbai is a megacity located on the west coast of india. It has a rapidly growing population of 17 million, with an estimated 600 migrants arriving each day —> hyper urbanisation has created a number of social and economic issues in mumbai
why is mumbai globally and nationally important?
globally:
-40% of international flights to India land in Mumbai - tourism
-Mumbai is the home of Bollywood, the huge film hub which produces more films than Hollywood each year —> This is a huge part of the revenue that supports Mumbai
-It is india’s financial centre and a hub of industry and services
nationally:
-Provides 33% of India’s entire tax revenue
social and economic issues in dharavi and how to tackle issues?
- social segregation —> as mumbai has developed economically, there has been an influx of african migrants —> many have experienced racial discrimination —> e.g. struggle to find formal jobs or rent apartments and are forced to live in slums
- slums are cramped and poorly built and often lack adequate sanitation —> only 30% of slum residents have access to public healthcare
- whilst people are living in poverty, over a quarter of all india’s millionaires live in mumbai —> usually in high rise apartments that are close to mumbais CBD
- inequality in education —> literacy rate is around 60% in slums compared to 90% in the city as a whole —> literacy rates are lower for women than for men
- psychological problems like depression are more common in slum areas than in richer districts
solutions:
- in 2004, the government first announced a redevelopment project to clear the dharavi slum —> plans include building new apartments, a water and sewage system, hospitals and schools
challenges- some residents object to the redevelopment —> worried that it will destroy the community spirit of an area
economic inequality in dharavi and how to tackle issues?
inequality in education —> literacy rate is around 60% in slums compared to 90% in the city as a whole —> literacy rates are lower for women than for men —> few opportunities for women in slum areas —> some women resort to prostitution to earn a living —> HIV and AIDS are increasing in mumbai —> extra pressure on healthcare services —> only 30% of slum residents have access to public healthcare
solutions:
- the national AIDS control organisation runs condom promotion campaigns in mumbai to reduce HIV rates —> less pressure on healthcare
- new government legislation passed in 2017 made it illegal to discriminate against HIV/AIDS positive people —> more people working
environmental issues in dharavi and how to tackle issues?
pollution:
- millions of cars each day —> adding to air pollution
- increasing population —> more waste —> e.g. rubbish dumps being burnt in the neighbourhood of chembur—> air pollution —> impacts health —> 25% of deaths in chembur between 2008 and 2010 were caused by respiratory problems
solutions:
- mumbais public transport system —> in 2011, the world bank provided $1 billion of funding to upgrade roads, rebuild train tracks and purchase more fuel efficient buses// challenges- many families have had to relocate to make space for upgraded roads
- the clean up mumbai campaign —> cleaning up the streets and educating local residents and shopkeepers about how to recycle and dispose waste properly
urban form?
urban form —> the physical characteristics that make up a city including it’s size and shape, population density and how the city is arranged
where were cities initially established?
- good water supplies
- fertile soil for growing food
- natural resources (wood for fires)
- good defensive positions (on top of a hill)
physical factors that affect urban form?
Topography:
- Informal settlements are often found on steep land —> size of settlement is restricted —> Rocinha is built on a steep hillside (Brazil’s largest shanty town)
- Large flat areas encourage low density developments because there’s lots of space to build on —> wealthier people may live here —> encourages some businesses to locate here
Water:
- Cities are often built near water sources for drinking, transportation, and trade
- Rivers and coastlines can shape the layout of a city, influencing the location of buildings, roads, and parks
- Water bodies can enhance the aesthetic appeal of a city —> urban planners may create recreational spaces here —> water affects how the city is arranged
Natural resources:
- Natural resources like coal and metal can lead to economic growth —> more infrastructure and job opportunities —> attract people to cities —> affects urban form as population gets larger
Land type:
- Some ground surfaces are more difficult or expensive to build on so this may affect land use e.g. swamps and wetlands can limit urban growth —> not that many houses will be located in these areas —> if no houses are located here then no businesses will want to locate here —> affects urban form as size of urban area is relatively small
