Human Factors Final Flashcards
1
Q
Dimensions of the cognitive environment
A
Bandwidth, Familiarity, Knowledge in the world
2
Q
Types of Attention
A
Selective Attention, Focused Attention, Divided Attention
3
Q
The selection of sensory channels to attend to (or not to) are driven by
A
Salience, Effort, Expectancy, Value
4
Q
Salient stimuli
A
Are chosen by designers to capture attention and signal important events.
5
Q
Salient attention depends on
A
effort
6
Q
Expectancy and value are
A
knowledge-driven factors based on our top-down
processing
7
Q
The most direct consequence of selective attention is
A
perception
8
Q
Bandwidth
A
How quickly it changes
9
Q
Familiarity
A
How often and how long the person has experienced the environment
10
Q
Knowledge
A
to what extent information that guides behavior is indicated
by features in the environment
11
Q
Once attention is directed to an object or area of the environment, perception
proceeds by three often simultaneous and concurrent processes:
A
Bottom-up feature analysis, Top-down processing, Unitization
12
Q
Unitization
A
combines the physical stimulus and experience
13
Q
Maximize bottom-up processing
A
by not only increasing visibility and legibility (or audibility of sounds), but also paying
careful attention to confusion caused by similarity of message sets that could be presented in the same context.
14
Q
Maximize automaticity and unitization
A
by using familiar
perceptual representations (those encountered frequently
in long-term memory).
15
Q
Maximize top-down processing
A
when bottom-up processing may be poor (as revealed by analysis of the environment
and the conditions under which perception may take place),
and when unitization may be lacking (unfamiliar symbology or language). Improving top-down processing means
providing the best opportunities for guessing. For example,
putting information in a consistent location, as is done with
the height of stop signs.
16
Q
Maximize discriminating features
A
Use a smaller vocabulary.
Create context.
Exploit redundancy.
Consider expectations.
Test symbols and icons in their context of use.
17
Q
Design guidelines
A
Maximize bottom-up processing
Maximize automaticity and unitization
Maximize top down processing
Maximize discriminating features
Consider expectations
Test symbols and icons in their context of use
18
Q
A downside of redundancy and context is
A
that they increase the length of perceptual
messages
19
Q
Working Memory
A
temporary store that keeps information available while we are using it, until we use it, or
until we store it in long-term memory
20
Q
Mechanisms of WM
A
Visuospatial sketchpad
Episodic buffer
Phonological loop
21
Q
Visuospatial sketchpad
A
Holds information in analog spatial form (e.g., visual
imagery)
22
Q
Phonological loop
A
Represents verbal information in an acoustic form
23
Q
Episodic buffer
A
orders and sequences events and
communicates with long-term memory to
provide meaning to information held in
phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
24
Q
Limit of WM
A
Capacity
Time
Confusability and similarity
Availability and type of attention
25
Capacity of WM
Four chunks
26
Implications of WM for Design
Minimize WM load
Provide placeholders for sequential tasks
Exploit chunking
Minimize confusability
27
LTM can be distinguished by whether it involves memory
from general knowledge, termed semantic or declarative memory
for specific events, termed episodic memory
of how to do things, termed procedural memory
28
Mechanisms of LTM
strength
associations
Working memory and LTM interaction
Forgetting
29
Strength
determined by frequency and recency of use
30
Associations
each item retrieved in LTM may be linked or associated with other items
31
Working memory and LTM interaction
each of retrieval depends on richness and number
of associations that can be made with other items
32
Forgetting
decay of item strength and association strength takes form of an exponential
curve, where people experience a very rapid decline in memory within first few days
33
Information in LTM is stored
in associative networks where each piece of information (or
image or sound) is associated with other related information
34
LTM is organized in four ways:
Semantic networks
Schemas
Mental models
Cognitive maps
35
Semantic network
Our knowledge seems to be organized into semantic networks where sections of the
network contain related information
36
Schemas and scripts
are important for design because they help people develop
appropriate expectations and process information efficiently
37
Mental models
Schemas of dynamic systems.
Generate a set of expectancies about how equipment or system will behave
38
Cognitive maps
Mental representations of spatial information, like the layout of a city, room, or workplace
39
Implications of LTM for Design
Encourage regular use of information to increase frequency and recency
Encourage active reproduction or verbalization of information that is to be recalled
Standardize
Use memory aids
Design information to be remembered
Support correct mental models
40
Filter
selectively choose between multiple channels or
external sources of information.
Selective attention
41
Fuel
mental energy that supports information
processing
selectively allocate resources between tasks
divided attention
42
Multiple Resource Theory
establishes
that tasks using different resources interfere
less with each other than tasks using same
resources
43
Modalities
Visual
Auditory
Tactile
44
Codes (of processing)
Spatial
Verbal
45
Codes are represented somewhat in different brain
structures:
right (spatial), left (verbal) cerebral hemispheres
46
Stages (of processing)
Perception
Cognition
Responding
47
Visual processing
Focal
Ambient
48
Macrocognition
Describes high-level cognitive processes that individuals employ to perform complex tasks
in dynamic, complex, and often unpredictable environments
49
Metacognition
an individual's awareness and understanding of their own cognitive processes
50
Microcognition
basic cognitive processes that underpin our ability to perceive, attend,
remember, and think
51
Macrocognition
higher-level cognitive processes that allow us to plan, reason, solve problems,
and make decisions
52
Macrocognitive Environment
Refers to broader context in which an individual engages in high-level cognitive processes,
such as planning, decision-making, problem-solving, and situation awareness
53
Key characteristics of a macrocognitive environment include:
time pressure
high-risk situations
information-rich environments
uncertain, dynamic environments
54
Skill- Rule- Knowledge-based (SRK) Behavior
Depends on people’s expertise and situation
55
Skill-based behavior
represents actions performed almost automatically or reflexively based
on well-practiced skills
56
Rule-based behavior
involves following predefined rules, procedures, or algorithms to
perform tasks
57
Knowledge-based behavior
requires understanding of principles and concepts involved in
task or situation
58
Decision Making
Acquire
Interpret and assess
Plan and choose
Monitor and correct
59
One of three ways decisions are made:
intuitive skill-based processing
heuristic rule-based processing
analytical knowledge-based processing
60
Representativeness heuristic
Judging probability of an event based on how similar it is to our
prototype of that event
61
Availability heuristic
Judging likelihood of an event based on how easily we can recall
examples of it
62
Anchoring heuristic
Relying too heavily on first piece of information we receive (the
"anchor") when making decisions
63
Confirmation bias
seeking out and favoring information that confirms our existing beliefs,
while discounting information that contradicts them
64
Overconfidence bias
65
Hindsight bias
tendency of individuals to perceive events as having been more predictable
after they have occurred than they actually were before they happened
66
Framing bias (aka framing effect)
occurs when the way information is presented influences
our judgment and decisions
67
Naturalistic Decision Making (NDM)
Theory that explores how individuals, particularly experts in their field, make decisions in
real-world settings by observing and understanding the cognitive processes involved
68
Recognition-primed decision-making (RPD)
Model of human decision-making that explains how people make quick and effective
decisions in complex situations
Describes how experts, often in high-stakes or time-sensitive situations, make decisions
based on their previous experiences and patterns they recognize in the current situation
69
Recognition-primed decision-making (RPD)
1. Situation assessment
2. Pattern recognition
3. Action selection
70
Situation Awareness (SA)
Level 1: Perception
Level 2: Comprehension
Level 3: Projection
71
SA Measurement Techniques
Freeze-probe techniques e.g., SA Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT)
Real-time query or probe technique e.g., Situation Presence Assessment Method (SPAM)
Self- and observer-rating techniques using questionnaires e.g., SA Rating Technique
(SART)
Performance Measures e.g., Response Time, Errors
Physiological Sensing Methods
72
SA Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT)
Provides objective, unbiased assessment of SA
Simulations of representative tasks or scenarios frozen at randomly selected times, and system
displays blanked
Requires development of domain-specific queries
73
SAGAT scores normally expressed
as percent correct for each query
combination of scores on all SAGAT queries into a combined overall score
three combined scores that represent Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3 SA
74
Situation Presence Assessment Method (SPAM)
Queries are provided in real time, usually verbally, while participants carry out their normal
operational tasks
75
SA Rating Technique (SART)
Amount of demand on attentional resources (D)
Supply of attentional resources (perceived workload) (S)
Understanding of situation provided (U)
76
Amount of demand on attentional resources (D)
instability of situation
complexity of situation
variability of situation
77
Supply of attentional resources (perceived workload) (S)
Arousal
Concentration of attention
Division of attention
Spare mental capacity
78
Understanding of the situation provided (U)
Information quantity
Information quality
Familiarity with situation
79
Physiological Sensing Methods
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Eye movement
Heart Rate Variability
Functional near infra red spectroscopy (fNIRS)
80
Workload
Reflects margin between amount of physical and/or cognitive effort required to complete a task and resources available to use for that task
81
Physical Workload
Energy expenditure rate linearly related to amount of oxygen consumed and to heart rate
82
Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE)
Scale used to subjectively measure an individual's perception of intensity of
physical activity or exertion
83
Primary task measures
Secondary task methods
Loading tasks
Physiological measures
Subjective measures
84
Primary task measures
Focus solely on the main task participant is primarily performing
Evaluate performance, time, resources required for primary task itself
85
Secondary task methods
Involve introducing an additional task alongside the primary task
Assess impact of primary task's workload on participant’s ability to perform an additional
task simultaneously
86
Loading tasks
Purpose is to observe how participant copes with increased mental demands and how their
performance on primary task might be affected by intentional overload
87
Physiological measures
Electrocardiac and cardiovascular measures
Respiratory measures
Ocular measures
Neurophysiological measures
88
NASA Task Load Index (TLX)
Workload is assessed along six dimensions:
mental demand
physical demand
temporal demand
performance
effort
frustration
89
Stress
Multidimensional construct that reflects our response to physical and/or psychological demands
90
Stressor
External or internal event, circumstance, or situation that causes stress
91
Types of Stressors
Environmental
Psychological
Physiological
Acute
Chronic
92
Level of Arousal
Relationship between arousal and performance follows an inverted U-shaped curve
93
Measuring Stress
Subjective measures
Objective measures
Physiological techniques
94
Subjective measures
Dundee Stress State Questionnaire (DSSQ)
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)
Perceived Stress Scale (PSS)
95
Objective measures
Salivary cortisol
Salivary alpha-amylase
96
Physiological techniques
Pupillometry
EEG
fNIRS
HR/HRV
EDA
97
Fatigue
Overwhelming sense of tiredness, lack of energy, and a feeling of exhaustion
98
Burnout
Psychological syndrome characterized by
emotional exhaustion
depersonalization, and
a reduced sense of professional efficacy
99
Syndrome
set of symptoms and signs that exist at the same time
100
Automation
machine that performs a task that
is otherwise performed by a person, or that has
never been performed before
101
Autonomy
systems that are generative and learn, evolve and permanently change their
functional capabilities as a result of the input of operational and contextual information
102
Primary differentiator between automation and autonomy
self-governance
103
Types of Automation
Acquisition Automation
Analysis Automation
Decision Automation
Action Automation
104
Acquisition Automation
Applies to sensing and registration of input data
105
Analysis Automation
Information integration-
replaces or assists many cognitive processes of working memory and inferential
processes
106
Decision Automation
Involves selection from among decision alternatives
107
Action Automation
Control and action execution
108
Automation Reliability
Consistency and accuracy of automated system in performing its intended tasks
109
Trust calibration
process by which individuals adjust their level of trust in automated systems or
technology based on their experiences, perceptions, and system's performance
110
Mistrust
general skepticism or uncertainty about automation's capabilities and intentions
111
Distrust (too low trust)
strong negative attitude towards automation, often based on
specific past experiences or evidence of its limitations
112
Overtrust (complacency or automation bias)
excessive reliance on automation, often
exceeding its true capabilities
113
Out-of-the-loop (OOTL)
Refers to situation where human operator has minimal involvement with automation
114
In-the-loop (ITL)
Refers to situation where human operator actively monitors automation and can intervene
if necessary
115
On-the-loop (OTL)
Refers to situation where human operator and automation work together in a collaborative
manner
116
Matching principle
assigns tasks to agent (human or automation) that is best suited to
perform them, based on their respective capabilities and requirements of task
117
Workload allocation principle
aims to distribute workload evenly between humans and
automation to optimize efficiency and avoid overload
118
Adaptive allocation principle
dynamically adjusts allocation of tasks based on current
situation and performance of the human and automation agents
