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Human Factors Final > Human Factors Final > Flashcards

Human Factors Final Flashcards

1
Q

Dimensions of the cognitive environment

A

Bandwidth, Familiarity, Knowledge in the world

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2
Q

Types of Attention

A

Selective Attention, Focused Attention, Divided Attention

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3
Q

The selection of sensory channels to attend to (or not to) are driven by

A

Salience, Effort, Expectancy, Value

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4
Q

Salient stimuli

A

Are chosen by designers to capture attention and signal important events.

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5
Q

Salient attention depends on

A

effort

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6
Q

Expectancy and value are

A

knowledge-driven factors based on our top-down
processing

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7
Q

The most direct consequence of selective attention is

A

perception

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8
Q

Bandwidth

A

How quickly it changes

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9
Q

Familiarity

A

How often and how long the person has experienced the environment

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10
Q

Knowledge

A

to what extent information that guides behavior is indicated
by features in the environment

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11
Q

Once attention is directed to an object or area of the environment, perception
proceeds by three often simultaneous and concurrent processes:

A

Bottom-up feature analysis, Top-down processing, Unitization

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12
Q

Unitization

A

combines the physical stimulus and experience

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13
Q

Maximize bottom-up processing

A

by not only increasing visibility and legibility (or audibility of sounds), but also paying
careful attention to confusion caused by similarity of message sets that could be presented in the same context.

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14
Q

Maximize automaticity and unitization

A

by using familiar
perceptual representations (those encountered frequently
in long-term memory).

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15
Q

Maximize top-down processing

A

when bottom-up processing may be poor (as revealed by analysis of the environment
and the conditions under which perception may take place),
and when unitization may be lacking (unfamiliar symbology or language). Improving top-down processing means
providing the best opportunities for guessing. For example,
putting information in a consistent location, as is done with
the height of stop signs.

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16
Q

Maximize discriminating features

A

Use a smaller vocabulary.
Create context.
Exploit redundancy.
Consider expectations.
Test symbols and icons in their context of use.

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17
Q

Design guidelines

A

Maximize bottom-up processing
Maximize automaticity and unitization
Maximize top down processing
Maximize discriminating features
Consider expectations
Test symbols and icons in their context of use

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18
Q

A downside of redundancy and context is

A

that they increase the length of perceptual
messages

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19
Q

Working Memory

A

temporary store that keeps information available while we are using it, until we use it, or
until we store it in long-term memory

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20
Q

Mechanisms of WM

A

Visuospatial sketchpad
Episodic buffer
Phonological loop

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21
Q

Visuospatial sketchpad

A

Holds information in analog spatial form (e.g., visual
imagery)

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22
Q

Phonological loop

A

Represents verbal information in an acoustic form

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23
Q

Episodic buffer

A

orders and sequences events and
communicates with long-term memory to
provide meaning to information held in
phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

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24
Q

Limit of WM

A

Capacity
Time
Confusability and similarity
Availability and type of attention

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25
Q

Capacity of WM

A

Four chunks

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26
Q

Implications of WM for Design

A

Minimize WM load
Provide placeholders for sequential tasks
Exploit chunking
Minimize confusability

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27
Q

LTM can be distinguished by whether it involves memory

A

from general knowledge, termed semantic or declarative memory
for specific events, termed episodic memory
of how to do things, termed procedural memory

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28
Q

Mechanisms of LTM

A

strength
associations
Working memory and LTM interaction
Forgetting

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29
Q

Strength

A

determined by frequency and recency of use

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30
Q

Associations

A

each item retrieved in LTM may be linked or associated with other items

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31
Q

Working memory and LTM interaction

A

each of retrieval depends on richness and number
of associations that can be made with other items

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32
Q

Forgetting

A

decay of item strength and association strength takes form of an exponential
curve, where people experience a very rapid decline in memory within first few days

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33
Q

Information in LTM is stored

A

in associative networks where each piece of information (or
image or sound) is associated with other related information

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34
Q

LTM is organized in four ways:

A

Semantic networks
Schemas
Mental models
Cognitive maps

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35
Q

Semantic network

A

Our knowledge seems to be organized into semantic networks where sections of the
network contain related information

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36
Q

Schemas and scripts

A

are important for design because they help people develop
appropriate expectations and process information efficiently

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37
Q

Mental models

A

Schemas of dynamic systems.
Generate a set of expectancies about how equipment or system will behave

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38
Q

Cognitive maps

A

Mental representations of spatial information, like the layout of a city, room, or workplace

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39
Q

Implications of LTM for Design

A

Encourage regular use of information to increase frequency and recency
Encourage active reproduction or verbalization of information that is to be recalled
Standardize
Use memory aids
Design information to be remembered
Support correct mental models

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40
Q

Filter

A

selectively choose between multiple channels or
external sources of information.
Selective attention

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41
Q

Fuel

A

mental energy that supports information
processing
selectively allocate resources between tasks
divided attention

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42
Q

Multiple Resource Theory

A

establishes
that tasks using different resources interfere
less with each other than tasks using same
resources

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43
Q

Modalities

A

Visual
Auditory
Tactile

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44
Q

Codes (of processing)

A

Spatial
Verbal

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45
Q

Codes are represented somewhat in different brain
structures:

A

right (spatial), left (verbal) cerebral hemispheres

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46
Q

Stages (of processing)

A

Perception
Cognition
Responding

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47
Q

Visual processing

A

Focal
Ambient

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48
Q

Macrocognition

A

Describes high-level cognitive processes that individuals employ to perform complex tasks
in dynamic, complex, and often unpredictable environments

49
Q

Metacognition

A

an individual’s awareness and understanding of their own cognitive processes

50
Q

Microcognition

A

basic cognitive processes that underpin our ability to perceive, attend,
remember, and think

51
Q

Macrocognition

A

higher-level cognitive processes that allow us to plan, reason, solve problems,
and make decisions

52
Q

Macrocognitive Environment

A

Refers to broader context in which an individual engages in high-level cognitive processes,
such as planning, decision-making, problem-solving, and situation awareness

53
Q

Key characteristics of a macrocognitive environment include:

A

time pressure
high-risk situations
information-rich environments
uncertain, dynamic environments

54
Q

Skill- Rule- Knowledge-based (SRK) Behavior

A

Depends on people’s expertise and situation

55
Q

Skill-based behavior

A

represents actions performed almost automatically or reflexively based
on well-practiced skills

56
Q

Rule-based behavior

A

involves following predefined rules, procedures, or algorithms to
perform tasks

57
Q

Knowledge-based behavior

A

requires understanding of principles and concepts involved in
task or situation

58
Q

Decision Making

A

Acquire
Interpret and assess
Plan and choose
Monitor and correct

59
Q

One of three ways decisions are made:

A

intuitive skill-based processing
heuristic rule-based processing
analytical knowledge-based processing

60
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

Judging probability of an event based on how similar it is to our
prototype of that event

61
Q

Availability heuristic

A

Judging likelihood of an event based on how easily we can recall
examples of it

62
Q

Anchoring heuristic

A

Relying too heavily on first piece of information we receive (the
“anchor”) when making decisions

63
Q

Confirmation bias

A

seeking out and favoring information that confirms our existing beliefs,
while discounting information that contradicts them

64
Q

Overconfidence bias

A
65
Q

Hindsight bias

A

tendency of individuals to perceive events as having been more predictable
after they have occurred than they actually were before they happened

66
Q

Framing bias (aka framing effect)

A

occurs when the way information is presented influences
our judgment and decisions

67
Q

Naturalistic Decision Making (NDM)

A

Theory that explores how individuals, particularly experts in their field, make decisions in
real-world settings by observing and understanding the cognitive processes involved

68
Q

Recognition-primed decision-making (RPD)

A

Model of human decision-making that explains how people make quick and effective
decisions in complex situations
Describes how experts, often in high-stakes or time-sensitive situations, make decisions
based on their previous experiences and patterns they recognize in the current situation

69
Q

Recognition-primed decision-making (RPD)

A
  1. Situation assessment
  2. Pattern recognition
  3. Action selection
70
Q

Situation Awareness (SA)

A

Level 1: Perception
Level 2: Comprehension
Level 3: Projection

71
Q

SA Measurement Techniques

A

Freeze-probe techniques e.g., SA Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT)
Real-time query or probe technique e.g., Situation Presence Assessment Method (SPAM)
Self- and observer-rating techniques using questionnaires e.g., SA Rating Technique
(SART)
Performance Measures e.g., Response Time, Errors
Physiological Sensing Methods

72
Q

SA Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT)

A

Provides objective, unbiased assessment of SA
Simulations of representative tasks or scenarios frozen at randomly selected times, and system
displays blanked
Requires development of domain-specific queries

73
Q

SAGAT scores normally expressed

A

as percent correct for each query
combination of scores on all SAGAT queries into a combined overall score
three combined scores that represent Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3 SA

74
Q

Situation Presence Assessment Method (SPAM)

A

Queries are provided in real time, usually verbally, while participants carry out their normal
operational tasks

75
Q

SA Rating Technique (SART)

A

Amount of demand on attentional resources (D)
Supply of attentional resources (perceived workload) (S)
Understanding of situation provided (U)

76
Q

Amount of demand on attentional resources (D)

A

instability of situation
complexity of situation
variability of situation

77
Q

Supply of attentional resources (perceived workload) (S)

A

Arousal
Concentration of attention
Division of attention
Spare mental capacity

78
Q

Understanding of the situation provided (U)

A

Information quantity
Information quality
Familiarity with situation

79
Q

Physiological Sensing Methods

A

Electroencephalography (EEG)
Eye movement
Heart Rate Variability
Functional near infra red spectroscopy (fNIRS)

80
Q

Workload

A

Reflects margin between amount of physical and/or cognitive effort required to complete a task and resources available to use for that task

81
Q

Physical Workload

A

Energy expenditure rate linearly related to amount of oxygen consumed and to heart rate

82
Q

Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE)

A

Scale used to subjectively measure an individual’s perception of intensity of
physical activity or exertion

83
Q
A

Primary task measures
Secondary task methods
Loading tasks
Physiological measures
Subjective measures

84
Q

Primary task measures

A

Focus solely on the main task participant is primarily performing
Evaluate performance, time, resources required for primary task itself

85
Q

Secondary task methods

A

Involve introducing an additional task alongside the primary task
Assess impact of primary task’s workload on participant’s ability to perform an additional
task simultaneously

86
Q

Loading tasks

A

Purpose is to observe how participant copes with increased mental demands and how their
performance on primary task might be affected by intentional overload

87
Q

Physiological measures

A

Electrocardiac and cardiovascular measures
Respiratory measures
Ocular measures
Neurophysiological measures

88
Q

NASA Task Load Index (TLX)

A

Workload is assessed along six dimensions:
mental demand
physical demand
temporal demand
performance
effort
frustration

89
Q

Stress

A

Multidimensional construct that reflects our response to physical and/or psychological demands

90
Q

Stressor

A

External or internal event, circumstance, or situation that causes stress

91
Q

Types of Stressors

A

Environmental
Psychological
Physiological
Acute
Chronic

92
Q

Level of Arousal

A

Relationship between arousal and performance follows an inverted U-shaped curve

93
Q

Measuring Stress

A

Subjective measures
Objective measures
Physiological techniques

94
Q

Subjective measures

A

Dundee Stress State Questionnaire (DSSQ)
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)
Perceived Stress Scale (PSS)

95
Q

Objective measures

A

Salivary cortisol
Salivary alpha-amylase

96
Q

Physiological techniques

A

Pupillometry
EEG
fNIRS
HR/HRV
EDA

97
Q

Fatigue

A

Overwhelming sense of tiredness, lack of energy, and a feeling of exhaustion

98
Q

Burnout

A

Psychological syndrome characterized by
emotional exhaustion
depersonalization, and
a reduced sense of professional efficacy

99
Q

Syndrome

A

set of symptoms and signs that exist at the same time

100
Q

Automation

A

machine that performs a task that
is otherwise performed by a person, or that has
never been performed before

101
Q

Autonomy

A

systems that are generative and learn, evolve and permanently change their
functional capabilities as a result of the input of operational and contextual information

102
Q

Primary differentiator between automation and autonomy

A

self-governance

103
Q

Types of Automation

A

Acquisition Automation
Analysis Automation
Decision Automation
Action Automation

104
Q

Acquisition Automation

A

Applies to sensing and registration of input data

105
Q

Analysis Automation

A

Information integration-
replaces or assists many cognitive processes of working memory and inferential
processes

106
Q

Decision Automation

A

Involves selection from among decision alternatives

107
Q

Action Automation

A

Control and action execution

108
Q

Automation Reliability

A

Consistency and accuracy of automated system in performing its intended tasks

109
Q

Trust calibration

A

process by which individuals adjust their level of trust in automated systems or
technology based on their experiences, perceptions, and system’s performance

110
Q

Mistrust

A

general skepticism or uncertainty about automation’s capabilities and intentions

111
Q

Distrust (too low trust)

A

strong negative attitude towards automation, often based on
specific past experiences or evidence of its limitations

112
Q

Overtrust (complacency or automation bias)

A

excessive reliance on automation, often
exceeding its true capabilities

113
Q

Out-of-the-loop (OOTL)

A

Refers to situation where human operator has minimal involvement with automation

114
Q

In-the-loop (ITL)

A

Refers to situation where human operator actively monitors automation and can intervene
if necessary

115
Q

On-the-loop (OTL)

A

Refers to situation where human operator and automation work together in a collaborative
manner

116
Q

Matching principle

A

assigns tasks to agent (human or automation) that is best suited to
perform them, based on their respective capabilities and requirements of task

117
Q

Workload allocation principle

A

aims to distribute workload evenly between humans and
automation to optimize efficiency and avoid overload

118
Q

Adaptive allocation principle

A

dynamically adjusts allocation of tasks based on current
situation and performance of the human and automation agents

Human Factors Final (1 decks)

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