Human Factors

Question 1

What is Airmanship

Answer 1

This is where aircrew exercise sound judgment, uncompromising flight discipline, and skillful control of an aircraft and a situation.

Question 2

How is Airmanship maintained

Answer 2

By continuous self-improvement and a desire to perform optimally at all times

Question 3

What is the definition of a threat?

Answer 3

A threat is a situation or event that has the potential to impact negatively on the safety of a flight, or any influence that promotes the opportunity for pilot errors.

Question 4

What is the definition of an error?

Answer 4

An error can be defined as flight crew actions or inactions that can lead to, a deviation from crew or organisational intentions or expectations, a reduction of safety margins, and an increase in the probability of adverse operational events on the ground and during flight.

Question 5

What is threat and error management?

Answer 5

The process of detecting and responding to threats and errors to ensure that the ensuing outcome is inconsequential, ie the outcome is not an error, further error, or undesired state.

Question 6

What is the definition of an internal flight environment

Answer 6

The aircraft’s internal environment may include, but is not limited to, aircraft attitude and performance, instruments, observations, flight controls, equipment, warning and alerting devices, trainee members, aircraft position, procedures, publications, checklists, and automation.

Question 7

What is the definition of an external flight environment

Answer 7

The external environment may include but is not limited to, airspace, meteorological conditions, terrain, obstacles, the regulatory framework, other stakeholders, and operating culture.

Question 8

What are Human Factors

Answer 8

Human factors are the communication and decision-making skills that complement technical skills.

Question 9

What is meant by the term manage?

Answer 9

To plan, direct, and control an operation or situation.

Question 10

What are NTS1 & NTS 2

Answer 10

NTS 1.1 Maintain effective lookout NTS 1.2 Maintain situational awareness NTS 1.3 Assess situations and make decisions NTS 1.4 Set Priorities and manage tasks NTS 1.5 Maintain effective communication and interpersonal relationships. NTS 2.1 Manage threats NTS 2.2 Manage errors NTS 2.3 Recognise and manage undesired aircraft state

Question 11

In reference to NTS 1.5, what is meant by the term maintain effective and interpersonal communication?

Answer 11

Effective communication refers to sending information clearly and concisely - accurate transmission, receipt, and interpretation of information.

Interpersonal communication refers to direct verbal and non-verbal exchanges to foster positive and cooperative relationships with persons involved with or affected by the flight operation to be performed.

ie instructor, refueller,maintenance engineer, air traffic controller.

Question 12

What is the definition of an undesired aircraft state?

Answer 12

Pilot-induced aircraft position or speed deviations, misapplication of flight controls, or incorrect system configuration, associated with a reduced margin of safety.

Question 13

What are non technical skills.

Answer 13

They are specific human factors competencies such as, lookout, situational awareness, decision making, task management and communications.

Question 14

What are technical skills?

Answer 14

The manipulative and knowledge skills a pilot uses when operating an aircraft.

Question 15

What needs to happen before a person can be assessed?

Answer 15

They must be trained to meet competency standards

Question 16

What is situational awareness?

Answer 16

Knowing what is going on around you and being able to predict what could happen

Question 17

What is meant by the term violation

Answer 17

Deviation from rules, regulations operating procedures or standards

Question 18

What is meant by the term single-pilot human factors?

Answer 18

Achieving the safest outcome for flight operationsby the most effective use of people, and what people do when operating in the aviation environment and the equipment they use.

Question 19

What are the 5 elements in regards to Manage flight

Answer 19

NTS 1.1 Maintain lookout

NTS 1.2 Maintain situational awareness

NTS 1.3 Assess situations and make decisions

NTS 1.4 Set priorities and manage tasks

NTS 1.5 Maintain effective communications

Question 20

list examples of how the 5 elements for manage flight could be assessed

Answer 20

visually observe the trainee clear skies before making any turns, or bringing head inside cockpit for any radio freq changes etc, Looking out for emergency landing sites,

Listening on radio, observing aircraft in cct area, planning and managing separation, knowing wind direction for emergency landings, choosing safest taxiing, T/O or approach path, giving way to taxiing or parked aircraft, avoiding taxiing to close to cones, knowing when to change transponder and radio freq, prelanding checks, PSWAT checks, demonstrate assessing situations and making decisions managing tasks and setting priorities.

Making radio calls and briefing pax’s, CRM demonstrates effective communication.

Question 21

Describe the types of sensory information ie eyes, and where and how long this information is stored.

Answer 21

Stimuli include eyes, ears, nose, skin and muscle (feel), and the vestibular sensors (balance mechanism) are collected and information is transferred to the brain. This information is analysed and interpreted and is stored in the sensory memory for a short time (1-5 seconds) until it is replaced by new information.

Question 22

What stimuli are used for situational awareness?

Answer 22

Eyes, ears, nose, tastebuds, skin and muscle (Feel), Vestibular senses (Balance mechanism)

Question 23

What factors and how may they limit situational awareness?

Answer 23

Experience - lack of experience could lead to the likelihood of not recognising a stimulus.

Stress - May lead to single task fixation

Anomalous perception - Illusions, false signals from other people or the balance

Lack of Knowledge - can lead to false premise

Question 24

Explain the term - The brain is a single channel processor

Answer 24

The brain can only deal with one decision at a time.

Question 25

How does the brain make decisions

Answer 25

A decision can be made after stimuli have been perceived and options developed. The brain can then determine what to do with the options.

This process involves memory to recall stored information that is applicable to the situation. The working or short term memory holds the information being used at the time and may call on long term memory to evaluate new information

Question 26

What are some of the limitations that may affect information processing and decision making

Answer 26

Time limits, mental overload, task mismanagement, conflicting information, expectations and anticipation, fatigue, insufficient knowledge, forgetting, personality traits, failure to seek or apply feedback, stress, fixation and destination obsession.

Question 27

What is meant by maintaining an effective lookout?

Answer 27

Effective lookout means seeing what is out there and assessing the information that is received before making an appropriate decision.

Question 28

List at least 5 examples of personal characteristics that can be evaluated for interpersonal communication assessment

Answer 28

Tone and phrasing of communications.

Openness

reaction to criticism

aggressiveness or lack of assertion

willingness to listen

respect for others

arrogance

use of authority.

Question 29

What is the primary source of information that a pilot will use and why?

Answer 29

The primary source of information for a pilot is their vision. Vision is used by the pilot for attitude, position, physical hazards or other traffic, interpreting aircraft instruments, flight controls and aircraft systems.

Question 30

What factors could adversly limit vision

Answer 30

Amount of ambient light, Sun position, camouflaged hazards, window posts (blind spots), cleanliness or crazing of bubble,

Question 31

What are the three performance criteria relevant to maintaining an effective lookout

Answer 31

1. Maintains lookout and traffic separation using systematic scan technique at a rate determined by traffic density, visibility, and terrain
2. Maintains radio listening watch and interprets transmissions to determine traffic locations and intentions.
3. performs airspace cleared procedure before commencing any manoeuvres.

Question 32

What are the primary means of making an assessment of situational awareness?

Answer 32

Observation and questioning, simulation scenarios, encouraging students to verbalise their observations.

Question 33

What is the most important aspect of assessing a student’s situational awareness?

Answer 33

Confirming that the pilot’s mental model (or perception) of the environment is accurate.

also determining what options have been generated and if they are realistic for an accurate and timely decision if one is required.

Question 34

Explain the process for making decisions

Answer 34

1. Receive information
2. Convert information into reality
3. Options generated
4. Options are analysed
5. Decision made.

Question 35

What must an instructor consider when assessing a student’s decision.

Answer 35

That it is the correct decision and is made in the time available.

Question 36

List 3 examples of a decision to be made in a timely manner?

Answer 36

1. Unwanted aircraft state on steep approach with slow IAS, High ROD with Power - student will need to recognise aircraft performance and recall T & E of VRS in a timely manner for the decision to go around.
2. Navigation exercise - Uncertain of position - requires the student to assess the situation and be able to recall short-term memory and long-term memory so as to manage tasks for a timely decision to be made.
3. Faulty magneto - Partial power loss, more subjective offering students more time and more options to make a final decision.

Question 37

What is meant by trainee familiarity? Why is it important that the instructor is able to recognise these periods and what can be taught during these periods?

Answer 37

As the student progresses through their training, their technical & Non-technical ability improve with common repeated exercises. Ie departure to the training area, ccts or arrival from the training area allowing them to fly the aircraft with less concentration and more with muscle memory.

During these periods the instructor can expose the student to new situations in order to consolidate and assess their ability to manage the flight, maintain situational awareness and make sound decisions.

Question 38

Recite 3 phrases instructors can use to help alert students that their priorities may not be correct

Answer 38

1. Is there anything else we could / should be doing now
2. What is more important
3. Are there better options we could consider

Question 39

List examples that could be attributed to of reducing a pilot’s work effiency

Answer 39

Lack of preparation

fatigue

stress

distraction

destination or task obsession

overload

Question 40

What is meant by the term subjectivity?

Answer 40

Subjectivity in regard to assessment refers to being influenced by personal feelings, tastes or opinions.

Question 41

In relation to competency standards, the term “manage or management “ can be assessed by how?`

Answer 41

Evidence must be sought to ensure that a plan is developed, implemented (direction) and re-evaluated (control) throughout the activity.

Question 42

Explain the process of assessing Threat and Error management?

Answer 42

The application of this skill when managing threats and errors involves a plan for identifying the threat or error and implementing countermeasures to reduce or eliminate them.

Question 43

List examples of threats

Answer 43

Adverse weather

Weight and balance

density altitude

other traffic

aircraft condition

fatigue

complacency

lack of discipline

hazardous behaviour

lack of recency and proficiency

Question 44

Name the 3 groups that errors can be classified in.

Answer 44

1. Handling errors
2. procedural errors
3. communication errors

Question 45

List at least 5 examples of errors

Answer 45

1. Incorrect performance calculation
2. Inaccurate flight planning (winds, Fuel, Tracks, waypoints)
3. Non standard communications
4. Aircraft mis-handling
5. Incorrect systems operations
6. checklist errors

7.

Question 46

List an example of aircraft undesired state

Answer 46

1. Aircraft unknowingly flown in icing conditions -
2. Not applying carb heat when required
3. Incorrect T/O or approach speed
4. Approach with high rate of descent with slow airspeed close to the ground

5.