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Human Development Flashcards

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1
Q

What are maturational tasks?

A

Tasks that are achieved at each stage, heralding transition to the next stage

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2
Q

Social development at 4-6 weeks?

A

Social smile at 6 weeks
Recognise mums face
Shows preference for human faces

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3
Q

Maturational task at 6-8 weeks?

A

Cooing

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4
Q

When goes grasp reflex disappear?

A

3 months

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5
Q

When can a baby localsie a sound source?

A

3 months

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6
Q

What social development occurs at 3 months?

A

Squeals with pleasure

Discriminates smile

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7
Q

When do sound experiments occur?

A

5 months

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8
Q

When do babies reach out/oral exploration?

A

5 months

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9
Q

When does palmar grasp occur?

A

6 months

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10
Q

Which language task occurs at 6 months?

A

Double syllable sounds

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11
Q

When does hand to hand transfer occur?

A

6 months

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12
Q

What sensory maturational task occurs at 6 months?

A

Localise sounds 45cm lateral to either ear

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13
Q

When does stranger anxiety occur?

A

9-10 months

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14
Q

When can peek-a-boo be played?

A

9-10 months

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15
Q

When can a baby crawl?

A

9-10 months

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16
Q

When does pincer grasp occur?

A

9-10 months

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17
Q

When does a baby start looking for dropped toys?

A

9-10 months

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18
Q

When can a baby say 1-2 words?

A

1 year

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19
Q

When can a baby stand momentarily?

A

1 year

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20
Q

When does separation anxiety occur?

A

1 year

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21
Q

When can a child walk alone?

A

18 months

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22
Q

When can a child jump with both feet?

A

18 months

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23
Q

When can a child throw a ball?

A

18 months

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24
Q

When can a child use a spoon?

A

18 months

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25
Q

When can a child build a tower of 3-4 cubes?

A

18 months

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26
Q

When does a child show rapproachement?

A

18 months

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27
Q

When can a child run?

A

2 years

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28
Q

When can a child make sentences?

A

2 years

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29
Q

When does a child show parallel play?

A

2 years

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30
Q

When is a child dry by day?

A

2 years

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31
Q

When can a child speak in sentences?

A

3 years

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32
Q

When does a child have imaginary companions?

A

3 years

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33
Q

When does a child show cooperative play?

A

3 months

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34
Q

When does a child go upstairs 1 foot per step and down 2 feet?

A

3 years

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35
Q

When can a child copy a circle?

A

3 years

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36
Q

When can a child draw a man?

A

3 years

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37
Q

When can a child build a tower of 9 cubes?

A

3 years

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38
Q

When can a child copy a cross?

A

4 years

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39
Q

When can a child skip?

A

4 years

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40
Q

When is a child toilet trained?

A

4 years

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41
Q

When can a child copy a triangle?

A

5 years

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42
Q

When can a child hop?

A

5 years

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43
Q

When can a child dress and undress alone?

A

5 years

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44
Q

When is a child fluent with grammer?

A

5 years

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45
Q

When can a child copy a diamond?

A

6 years

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46
Q

When can a child count number of fingers?

A

6 years

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47
Q

What are motor tasks at 3 months?

A

Hold head up

Grasp reflex disappears

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48
Q

Motor tasks at 5 months?

A

Hand to hand transfer
Rolling over
Palmar grasp

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49
Q

When can a child roll over?

A

6 months

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50
Q

Motor tasks at 9-10 months?

A

Crawls
Sits unsupported
Picks up objects with pincer grasp

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51
Q

Social development at 9 months?

A

Stranger anxiety followed by object permanence

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52
Q

Language development at 1 year?

A

One or two words

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53
Q

Motor tasks at 18 months?

A 
Walks alone
Holds rails and climbs
Jumps with both feet
Builds tower of 3-4 cubes
Uses spoon
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54
Q

Social development at 2 years

A

Parallel play

Dry by day

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55
Q

Language development at 3 years

A

Speaks in sentences

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56
Q

Key concepts of Temperament theory

A

Temperaments are biologically based traits - inhibited or uninhibited. Temperament elicits environmental response that perpetuates pattern of behaviour.

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57
Q

Key concepts of PIaget’s Organismic stage theory

A

Development occurs in stages with transition occurring due to interaction between child and environment.

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58
Q

Key concepts of Freud’s psychosexual stage theory

A

Stage-specific behaviours are driven by inner conflicts resulting in anxiety signals.
Successful resolution of conflicts aid in progressive maturation.

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59
Q

Who created the psychosocial stage theory of development?

A

Erikson

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60
Q

Key concepts of Psychosocial stage theory?

A

Psychosocial developmental stages are characterized by conflicts but resolution is not mandatory for further development.

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61
Q

Key concepts of Vygotsky’s collaborative learning theory?

A

Development is not private - child acts as an apprentice in social surroundings. Parents/teachers carry out scaffolding to introduce familiarity for child to develop own expertise.

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62
Q

What is collaborative learning in the collaborative learning theory?

A

Parents and teachers carry out role of scaffolding to introduce familiarity for child to develop its own expertise.

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63
Q

What is zone of proximal development in collaborative learning theory?

A

Functions not yet fully achieved but in process of pipeline whose development is aided by scaffolding.

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64
Q

Key concepts of Maturational growth theory (Gesell)?

A

Maturation of nervous system as principal driver of various aspects of human behaviour.

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65
Q

Freuds psychosexual stages

A 
Oral
Anal
Phallic/oedipal
Latency
Genital
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66
Q

When does oral stage occur in Freuds theory?

A

0-1.5 years

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67
Q

When does anal stage occur in Freuds theory?

A

1.5-3 years

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68
Q

When does phallic/oedipal stage occur in Freuds theory?

A

3-5 years

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69
Q

When does latency stage occur in Freuds theory?

A

5-11

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70
Q

When does genital occur in Freuds theory?

A

Puberty onwards

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71
Q

When happens in oral stage in Freuds theory?

A

Drive discharge via sucking - oral erotogenic zone.

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72
Q

What occurs in early stages of oral stage?

A

Oral erotism (sucking, licking).

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73
Q

What occurs in late stages or oral stage?

A

Oral sadism - biting, chewing

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74
Q

What develops at oral stage?

A

Ego

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75
Q

What happens in Anal stage?

A

Anal erotogenic zone - drive discharge via sphincter behaviour.

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76
Q

Three behaviours in anal stage

A

Anal erotism
Anal sadism
Anal fixation

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77
Q

What occurs in anal erotism?

A

Sexual pleasure in anal functioning

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78
Q

What occurs in anal sadism?

A

Aggressive wishes linked to fecal expulsion

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79
Q

What occurs in anal fixation?

A

OCD like pattern, ambivalence and sadomasochistic tendencies.

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80
Q

What occurs in phallic/oedipal stage?

A

Genitals are organs of interest - masturbation-like activity.

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81
Q

What is the oedipus complex?

A

Wish to have libidinal relationship with opposite sex, leading to fear of retaliation from rival parent.

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82
Q

What is the electra complex?

A

Oedipal complex in girls.

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83
Q

What is fear of retaliation in both boys and girls?

A

Boys - castration anxiety

Girls - loss of mothers love

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84
Q

What is the electra complex?

A

Penis envy, wish to have penis accompanied by blaming mother for absence of mother.
Wish to displace mother as object of fathers love and bear his baby.

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85
Q

What occurs at resolution of Oedipus/electra complex?

A

Identification with aggressor

Super-ego develops from introjection of parental values

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86
Q

What occurs during latency period?

A

Socialization
Interest in peers
Sexual energy sublimated towards school work

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87
Q

What occurs during genital period?

A

Biological maturation

Genital sexuality is born

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88
Q

What is a critical period in development?

A

Time when individual is acutely sensitive to effects of external influences.

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89
Q

Types of stress responses in young children

A

Positive
Tolerable
Toxic

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90
Q

What is the positive stress response in children?

A

Brief, mild response
Moderated by availability of carer
Growth-opportunity

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91
Q

What is tolerable stress response in children?

A

Exposure to non-normative experience e.g. death in family.

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92
Q

What is toxic stress response in children?

A

Strong, frequent or prolonged activation of body’s stress response in absence of protection from adults.
Disrupts brain circuitry

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93
Q

What is monotropy in Bowlbys theory?

A

Strong, innate tendency to attach to one adult gemale

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94
Q

When does attachment behaviour peak?

A

12-18 months

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95
Q

Phases of attachment according to Bowlby

A

Pre-attaching
Indiscriminate attachment
Clearcut attachment
>25 months - mother is independent

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96
Q

When does preattachment phase occur?

A

Birth to 8-12 weeks

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97
Q

When does indiscriminate attachment occur?

A

8-12 weeks to 6 months

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98
Q

What happens during indiscriminate attachment phase?

A

Baby allows strangers to handle, infants become attached to one or more person in environment

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99
Q

When does clear-cut attachment occur?

A

6-24 months

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100
Q

What occurs during clear-cut attachment?

A

Preferential attachment, seperation anxiety, object permanence, stranger anxiety.

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101
Q

Who conducted the attachment experiments on rhesus monkeys?

A

Harlow

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102
Q

What led to the A-C categories of babies attachments?

A

Ainsworth’s experiments

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103
Q

Describe Type A attachment

A 
Anxious avoidant.
15%
Indifferent attitude to mother leaving/entering.
Distressed when alone.
Stranger can comfort child.
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104
Q

Which attachment type is seen in bullying behaviour?

A

Type A

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105
Q

Describe Type B attachment

A

70%
Distressed when mother leaves.
Comforted by mother, not by stranger.

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106
Q

Describe Type C attachment

A

Anxious resistant.
15%
High level of distress, especially when mother leaves. Not comforted by mother and resistant to stranger.

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107
Q

Which attachment pattern is greater in the West?

A

Type A

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108
Q

What is Type D attachment?

A

Disorganised
Maltreated/maternally deprived
Child is insecure, frightened of mother.

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109
Q

Who devised the Adult attachment interview?

A

Main

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110
Q

What are the four patterns noted from the Adult attachment interview?

A

Secure autonomous
Dismissing of experiences
Entangled
Unresolved disorganised

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111
Q

What is the secure autonomus behaviour in AAI?

A

Those with secure attachment provide coherent answers and talk freely re negative experiences in childhood - Type B.

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112
Q

What is the dismissing of experiences in AAI?

A

Those who had Type A minimise their experiences.

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113
Q

What is Entangled in AAI?

A

Those who were Type C use multiple emotionally laden responses and ramble excessively.

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114
Q

What is anaclitic depression?

A

Short period of separation from primary caregiver (e.g. hospitalisation) results in loss of loved one.

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115
Q

Who created the term anaclitic depression?

A

Spitz

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116
Q

Who created seperation-individuation theory?

A

Margaret Mahler

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117
Q

What are Mahler’s stages?

A

Normal Autism (0-2 months)
Symbiosis (2-5 months)
Separation - individuation

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118
Q

What occurs during normal autism?

A

Child sends time asleep

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119
Q

What happens during symbiosis?

A

Inner and outer world studied via senses but perceives mother and self as one.

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120
Q

What are the sub-phases of seperation-individuation phase?

A

Differentiation (5-10m)
Practicing (10-18m)
Rapprochment (18-24m)
Object constancy (2-5 years)

121
Q

What happens during differentiation?

A

Appreciates difference between mother and self

122
Q

What happens during practicing phase?

A

Increase in interest on environment

123
Q

What happens during Rapproachment phase?

A

Alternating drives to be dependent and autonomous.

124
Q

What happens during object constancy phase?

A

Understand mother will not be lost if away.

125
Q

Who distinguished deprivation from privation?

A

Rutter

126
Q

Describe deprivation

A

Attachment formed but lost temporarily.
If for short time then detachment phases seen - 8m- 3 years.
If prolonged - seperation anxiety.

127
Q

Describe seperation anxiety

A

Clingy behaviour
Psychosomatic complaints
Aggression

128
Q

What is privation?

A

Non-formation of attachment.

Affectionless psychopathy.

129
Q

Behaviours seen in privation

A

Attention seeking
Lack of guilt
Antisocial behaviour

130
Q

What is imprinting?

A

During critical phase (early stages of development), young animal is sensitive to certain stimuli that provoke a specific behaviour.

131
Q

What are innate releasing mechanisms?

A

Sensory mechanism selectively responsive to specific external stimulus and responsible for triggering stereotyped motor response.

132
Q

What is fixed action pattern?

A

Inherent pattern of behaviour initiated by specific stimuli.

133
Q

What does object relations theory state?

A

Ego exists only in relation to other objects.

134
Q

People associated with Object relations theory?

A 
Melanie Klein
Fairbairn
Kernberg
Guntrip
WInnicott
Balint
135
Q

What is Kleinian theory?

A

Maintained that oedipal development occurred earlier than Freud stated
Infant possessed instinctual knowledge of body
Weaning symbolically equivalent to castration

136
Q

What are Kleinian defenses?

A 
Splitting
Introjection
Projective identification
Denial
Omnipotence
Grandiosity
137
Q

What was the major technique employed via Kleinian theory?

A

Play interpretation

138
Q

What were Winnicott’s concepts?

A

Childrens psychological development occurs in transitional zone - between reality and fantasy.
Transitional object = toy that helps with transition. Buffer against loss.
Good enough mother = mother need not be perfect but provide growth sustaining environment

139
Q

What is ‘holding’ in Winnicott’s concept?

A

Idea of mother not having to be perfect but providing growth sustaining environment

140
Q

What is theory of multiple self-organization re Winnicott’s concept?

A

Parental control can lead to development of a false self-different from real self

141
Q

Who described the four types of parenting?

A

Maccoby and Martin

142
Q

What are the four types of parenting?

A

Authoritative/Propagative
Authoritarian/Totalitarian
Indulgent (permissive)
Neglectful

143
Q

What is the Authoritative/propagative parent?

A

Responsive

Demanding

144
Q

What is the Authoritatian/Totalitarian parent?

A

Demanding
Unresponsive
Punishment heavy - follow rules w/o explanation.

145
Q

What is indulgent parenting?

A

Responsive
Undemanding
Permissible + lenient. try to be friends with child.

146
Q

What happens to adults who had indulgent parenting?

A

Pay less attention to avoiding behaviours, causing aggression in others.

147
Q

Common type of parenting in first-borns

A

More parental time
Higher IQ
More authoritarian + conformist

148
Q

Common type of parenting in middle-born

A

Least attention

Strong peer relationships

149
Q

Common type of parenting in last-born

A

Most attention
Independent
Rebellious

150
Q

What was the landmark study that formed childhood predictors of delinquency?

A

Cambridge study of Delinquent development by Farrington et al.

151
Q

Behaviours shown after parental loss in 3-6 year olds

A

Assume responsibility for separation

152
Q

Behaviours shown in 7-12 year olds after parental separation

A

Decline in school performance

153
Q

Behaviours shown in adolescence after parental separation

A

Angry
Critical of parents
Spend time away from home

154
Q

What is ex-institutional syndrome?

A

Behaviour shown in those adopted:
relate better to adults than to peers
Less likely to have a special friend
Less likely to be selective in choosing friends
Turned to peers less often for emotional support

155
Q

Most stable temperaments in babies?

A

Negative emotionalist

Reaction to new situations

156
Q

What is the key study on childhood temperament?

A

New York Longitudinal study by Thomas and Chess - 30 year study of 138 children

157
Q

What behavioural styles were found from the New York Longitudinal study?

A

Easy - adapts well, active (40%)
Difficult - uncomfortable with new experiences, react intensely to stimuli (10%)
Slow to warm up - poor adaptation to change, responds at low intensity (15%)
Ungrouped - 35%

158
Q

What is behavioural inhibition a precursor to?

A

Neurotic disorders

159
Q

What is neophobia?

A

Form of inhibition in which child appears frozen and withdrawn in novel situations

160
Q

What is Goodness of fit?

A

Reciprocal relationship between baby’s temperament and its social environment, resulting in positive development.

161
Q

Who created the EAS model?

A

Buss and Plomin, 1984

162
Q

What is the EAS model?

A

Emotionality
Activity
Sociability
Temperament as inherited traits exihibted early in live.

163
Q

According to Eriskon’s model, what happens if a child is unable to build self-esteem?

A

Sense of shame

164
Q

When do we develop a sense of industry?

A

6-12 years of age - capable of learning

165
Q

What occurs during identity vs role confusion?

A

12-18 years
Development depends on what we do. Children explore independence, form sense of self.
Experiment with different social roles.

166
Q

What is generativity according to Eriksons model?

A

Middle aged adult seeks satisfaction through productivity in career and family/social network.

167
Q

What is integrity in Eriksons model?

A

Older adult reviews life accomplishments and prepares for end of life by pursuing lifelong interests.

168
Q

Stages of Eriksons model of development

A 
Basic trust vs basic mistrust - birth to 18 months
Autonomy vs shame - 18 months to 3 years
Initiative vs guilt - 3 to 6 years
Industry vs inferiority - 6 to 12 years
Identity vs role confusion - adolescence
Intimacy vs isolation - young adult
Generativity vs stagnation - middle adult
Ego integrity vs despair - late adult
169
Q

What is schema as per Piaget?

A

Basic building block/unit of intelligent behaviour.

Schema consist of organised past experiences to understand future experiences.

170
Q

What is adaptation as per Piaget?

A

Process of fitting schemas to environmental information via;

assimilation.

171
Q

How can schemas adapt?

A

Assimilation - new information is incorporated into existing schema.
Accommodation - schema is restructured to accommodate new information.

172
Q

Stages of PIaget’s model of development

A

Sensorimotor
Pre-operational
Concrete operational
Formal operational

173
Q

What happens during the sensorimotor stage?

A

Language develops, thought dominates action.
Can mimic one object with another.
Remembers an act, replays later.
Primitive self recognition.
Understands object can disappear from perception and still exist.

174
Q

What occurs during pre-operational stage?

A

Objects referred to by function rather than appearance.
Inanimate objects treated as living.
Von Damarus law/transductive reasoning - cats _ dogs have 4 legs so are same.
Lack of seriation (ability to categorise based on dimensional variation), conservation (ability to perceive quantity is unchanged if material is in different shape/structure), reversibility (ability to mentally calculate and understand what is done can be undone w/o loss of material).
Restricted ability of viewing world from single PoV.
Signifiers are symbols/signs that represent something else.
Link neighbouring objects/events based on common instances e.g. red sphere with red square.

175
Q

What happens during concrete operational stage?

A

Conservation of liquid at 6 years.

Conservation of length, count, weight and volume (11-12 years)

176
Q

What occurs during formal operational stage?

A

> 11 years
Manipulation of ideas and propositions.
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning develops after 12 years of age.

177
Q

How many phonemes/speech sounds in English?

A

46

178
Q

What is the meaningful part of language called?

A

Morpheme

179
Q

In whom is language slower to develop?

A 
Boys
Twins
Large families
Social classes 4-5
Those that lack speech stimulation (deaf, neglected children)
180
Q

Stages of language development

A

Pre-linguistic (0-12m)
One word (12-18m)
Two word sentences/stage 1 grammar (18-30m)
Stage 2 grammar (>30m)

181
Q

What happens in pre-linguistic state?

A

Crying.

1m: distinguish speech sounds
6w: cooing
6m: babbling

182
Q

What happens in one word stage?

A

Jargon/babbling up to 18m.
Earliest words are context bound.
Holophrases (one-word substitutes for whole phrases)

183
Q

What happens at stage 1 grammar?

A

Telegraphic speech - meaningful words used w/o connecting words.

184
Q

What happens at stage 2 grammar?

A

Length of utterances increases due to function words.

185
Q

What is Noam Chomsky’s theory on language?

A

Children are born with innate language acquisition device.
Transformational grammar is important in understanding language development.
Language has surface structure where syntax is accurate + actual words used, and deep structure where most semantic sense is made w/o similar syntactical rules.
Children are born with ability to decipher transformational grammar of deep to surface structure conversion.

186
Q

What is social interaction view of language?

A

Adults act as language acquisition support system.

187
Q

What is the elaborate language code?

A

Longer, complex sentences that are context-independent. allows for expression of abstract thought.

188
Q

What is restricted language code?

A

Short, incomplete sentences, usually context-dependent.

189
Q

What is social competence?

A

Development of ability to interact with others + perception of own behaviour

190
Q

Approaches to social competence

A

Peer regard - based on popularity with beers
Social skills - behaviours demonstrating social skills determine social competence
Relationship - competence based on ability to form relationships
Functional - context-specific, concerned with identification of social tasks

191
Q

What was PIaget’s theory re morality in children?

A

Older children have social perspective.

192
Q

Piagets moral development theory for 5-9 year olds

A 
Unilateral respect for external law
External responsibility for crime
Moral realism
Imminent justice
Heteronomous morality - subject to rules written by others
193
Q

Piaget’s moral development theory for children older than 10 years of age

A

Mutual respect for the self-invented law
Internal responsibility for crime
Moral relativism
Autonomous morality - rules can be self-made

194
Q

What is Kohlberg’s theory of moral development based on?

A

Reasons for making a judgement in a hypothetical experiment (Heinz Dilemma) studied in children.

195
Q

Levels of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

A

Pre-conventional (7-12 years to middle childhood)
Conventional (13-16)
Postconventional (16-20)

196
Q

What happens in Kohlberg’s pre-conventional morality stage?

A

Children decide right or wrong based on consequences.
Orientated to obedience - obide by rules to avoid punishment
Reward orientated.

197
Q

What happens during conventional morality stage in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

A

Children believe social rules and expectation on others determine behaviour.
Concordance orientation - what the majority thinks is right. Conforms to avoid disapproval.
Authority orientation - upholds rules to avoid feelings of guilt and authorities.

198
Q

What happens in postconventional morality stage in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

A

What is right is based on individual’s understanding of universal ethical principles.
Legalistic orientation - actions guided by principles agreed in group or essential to public welfare.
Universal ethics - actions guided by self-chosen ethics.

199
Q

Criticism of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

A

Androcentric

Eurocentric

200
Q

Describe Eisenberg’s stages re moral development theory

A

Based on prosocial reasoning where helping or altruistic behaviour was studied.

201
Q

How do infants show emotional regulation?

A

Gaze aversion

Vocalising

202
Q

At what age can children unconsciously regulate their emotion?

A

1 year

203
Q

What is an important study in development of emotional intelligence?

A

Development of Toddlers Study - Cole et al.

204
Q

Observations from Development of Toddlers study?

A 
18-24m:
quick to express anger
slow to distract selves
36m:
quicker to distract
anger briefer
48m:
quickly distract selves
verbally bid to mother
205
Q

At what age does fear of animals occur

A

3 years of age

206
Q

At what age does fear of dark occur

A

4-5 years of age

207
Q

At what age do children show awareness of their body

A

3-6 years

208
Q

What is the Band Aid phase?

A

3-6 years - when children are aware of their body and show preoccupation with illness or injury.

209
Q

When does gender identity develop?

A

3-4 years of age

210
Q

What is gender typing?

A

Process where an individual acquires a sense of gender-related traits within society they are born.

211
Q

What is cognitive developmental theory re gender?

A 
Gender labelling (age 3): child understands he/she is male or female
Gender stability (4-5): recognise gender is life-long
Gender constancy (6-7): understand gender is immutable.
212
Q

What does Gender Schema Processing theory state?

A

Gender identity provides children the motivation to assume sex-typed behaviour.

213
Q

Sexual behaviours shown in 4-6 year olds

A

Masturbating in front of others
Kissing/holding hands
Talking about genitals w/o understanding meaning
Exploring private parts with peers

214
Q

Sexual behaviours in 7-12 year olds

A

Playing courtship games
Viewing sexual content in media
Reluctant to discuss sexual issues with adults
Sexually attracted to peers

215
Q

What is adolescence called in Piaget’s theory?

A

Formal operation

216
Q

What is adolescence called in Freud’s theory?

A

Genital stage

217
Q

What is adolescence called in Erikson’s theory?

A

Identity vs role confusion

218
Q

What is affective instability?

A

Oscillation between behavioural and affective excess and scarcity during adolescence induced by endocrine change, sexual maturity and instability of ego defenses.

219
Q

What is adolescent turmoil?

A

Described by Erikson as temporary maladaptive state due to identity diffusion.

220
Q

What is Marcia’s theory on adolescence?

A

Mature self-identity is possible only if an individual experiences several crises, finally arriving at a stage of commitment.

221
Q

What are the four degrees of commitment as per Marcia’s theory?

A

Identity achievement
Moratorium
Foreclosure
Role confusion

222
Q

What is identity achievement according to Marcia?

A

Most mature achievement - most desirable.

High degree of commitment, high degree of crises.

223
Q

What is foreclosure according to Marcia?

A

Avoids anxiety by prematurely commiting to safe and conventional parental and societal goals.
High degree of commitment.
Low degree of crises.

224
Q

What is Moratorium as per Marcia?

A

Experiences height of crises but postpones decisions until alternative identities tried.
Low degree of commitment.
High degree of crises.

225
Q

What is role confusion re Marcia?

A

Unresolved state of adolescence.
Low degree of commitment.
Low degree of crises.

226
Q

Precocious puberty age?

A

Boys - <9

Girls - <8

227
Q

What are Jane Loevinger’s 9 states of ego?

A

Presocial - baby unable to differentiate from world
Impulsive - child concerned with bodily impulses
Self-protective - child has notion of blame but externalises
Conformist - conform to socially approved codes
Self-aware - increased self-criticism, interest in interpersonal relations
Conscientious - internalisation of rules complete, goals acknowledged, new responsibility
Individualistic - respect for individuality
Autonomous - able to conceptually integrate ideas
Integrated - learning understood as unavoidable.

228
Q

What is equity theory?

A

That individuals consider cost-benefit ratio for each person in relationship.

229
Q

What is reinforcement theory?

A

Individuals choose partners on basis of reinforcement of attraction with rewards.

230
Q

When is midlife transition?

A

40-45 years of ago.

231
Q

Who coined the term Midlife Crisis?

A

Elliot Jacques

232
Q

What is downshifting?

A

Voluntarily opting out of a pressurized career for more fulfilling life.

233
Q

Who did classic work on grief?

A

Erich Lindemann - studied 101 bereaved people.

234
Q

Patterns of Grief as per Lindemann

A

After unexpected death there is shock (10-14 days)
sadness
Anger - protest
Grief resolved after a year

235
Q

Stages of Bereavement as per Parkes

A 
Alarm
Numbness
Pining for deceased
Depression
Reorganisation
236
Q

How can psychological stress during pregnancy affect the fetus?

A

Release of corticotrophin releasing hormone from placenta increases with stress - increased risk of intrauterine infection, preterm labour and low birth weight.

237
Q

Factors that predict acute maternal psychological distress?

A

Single parent
Multiparity
Previous traumatic birth

238
Q

What cognitive function is most susceptible to decline with age?

A

Working memory
Incidental memory
Attention

239
Q

Effect of ageing on body physiology

A

Bone loss = reduction in mechanical strength

Deterioration of collagen fibres = loss of elasticity in skin

240
Q

Theories of role change in old age

A

Social disengagement
Social reengagement
Social exchange
Socio-emotional selectivity

241
Q

What does social disengagement theory say about age?

A

Mutual withdrawl of social and individual, increased individuality and shrinking life space are inevitable moves towards death.

242
Q

What does social reengagement theory say re age?

A

Ageist society reduces social interaction that older adults can have - withdrawl is forced.

243
Q

What does social exchange theory say re age?

A

Age robs people of ability to engage in reciprocal roles; retirement is a social contract wherein productivity is exchanged for increased leisure and reduced responsibilities.

244
Q

What does socio-emotional selectivity theory say re age?

A

Wise investment of social energy in old age is to limit social interaction to those familiar.

245
Q

Phases of retirement?

A

Pre-retirement - anxiety with retirement of friends/colleagues
Honeymoon - increased freedom
Disenchantment - slowing down, feels let down
Reorientation - explores new avenues, realistic
Stability - makes choises
Termination - frailty, death

246
Q

What was Waddington’s concept of canalization?

A

Certain behaviour traits are strongly genetically determined (canalized) so development follows these behaviours.
Others are poorly canalized so environmental factors influence these traits.

247
Q

What was Gottesmans theory re range of reactions?

A

Genetic make-up of child does not shape any behaviour in its entirety - instead genes only set limits within which individual variability is shapred by environment.

248
Q

What is Scarr & McCartney’s concept of niche-picking?

A

Genetic make-up of child contributes to propensities towards certain skills and abilities; children then seek activities that are compatible with their genes.

249
Q

What are the three G-E interactions?

A

Passive
Evocative
Active

250
Q

What is the Passive G-E interaction?

A

Child’s environment is influenced in part by parental genes which are correlated with child’s genes.
Shows decreasing influence over development.

251
Q

What is evocative G-E interaction?

A

Child’s environment is influenced partly by genetically shaped behaviour.
Stable influence over development.

252
Q

What is active ge-interaction?

A

Child’s environment is influenced in part by an active choice of the child to complement genetically shaped interests.
Increasing influence with development.

253
Q

When is a neural tube seen?

A

2-3 weeks

254
Q

What is formed by week 5 in vitro?

A

Ectodermal tissue differentiates to precursors of different brain regions.

255
Q

What occurs in vitro at week 8?

A

Birth neurons from stem cells at ventricular proliferative zone

256
Q

When does neuronal migration occur?

A

Week 12-20

257
Q

When does migration of neurons occur?

A

Week 17

258
Q

How does migration of neurons occur?

A

Transient layer of cortical subplate of migrating neurons is visible beneath cortex.
20w: subplate withers away
24-28w: replaced by more permanent cortical sheet

259
Q

When does cortical folding pattern (sulci and gyri) become visible?

A

20w on fetal MRI

260
Q

When is neuronal count in human brain at its peak?

A

28th week in vitro - 40% greater than in adult

261
Q

What happens at 28w in vitro?

A

Dendritic formation accelerates
Disappearance of proliferative zone and cortical subplate
Increase in cortical thickness on fetal MRI

262
Q

When does synaptogenesis peak?

A

34th week in vitro

263
Q

When does net number of synapses decrease?

A

Puberty

264
Q

How can one visualise synaptic decrease/pruning?

A
  • progressive cortical thinning of frontal and parietal cortices in MRI
  • glucose metabolism measured via PEt scan
265
Q

When does myelination occur?

A

Last trimester:
myelination of visual cortical white matter
9m postnatal:
myelination of frontal cortex (posterior to anterior maturation starting with sensory then motor pathway, finally higher-order assocation areas).

266
Q

How does white matter volume increase?

A

Linearly up to 20 years of age in all brain regions

267
Q

How does gray matter volume increase?

A

Frontal, paretial and temporal gray matter volume increases before adolescence
Frontoparietal peak at 12 years
Temporal peak at 16 years
Universal reduction thereafter

268
Q

How does cortical thickness progress with age?

A

Decreases with age in back-to-front progression:
starts at sensorimotor areas, progresses to dorsal parietal,
superior temporal
Dorsolateral preofrontal cortices.

269
Q

How does cortical thinning occur?

A

Synaptic pruning

Myelination

270
Q

What is diffusion tensor imaging?

A

Technique used to study integrity of white matter tracts

271
Q

What do neuroimaging in children show re white matter?

A

White matter pathways increase, particularly in prefrontal regions and basal ganglia

272
Q

What is Magnestic resonance spectroscopic?

A

Measures n-acetyl-aspartate - an indicator of neuronal integrity

273
Q

What do magnetic resonance spectrosopic studies show?

A

Low levels at birth, rapid increase during first 2 years of life - may repesent synaptogenesis during childhood

274
Q

What do fMri studies show re ageing and the brain?

A

Age-related increases in activation of left frontal and temporal cortices (language areas), hence expansion of reading and phonological skills during childhood

275
Q

At what month can a baby differentiate faces?

A

1 month

276
Q

At what month does a child develop colour vision?

A

4 months

277
Q

At what age can children read time to the hour?

A

4-5 years

278
Q

At what age can children read time to the half hour?

A

5-6 years

279
Q

At what age does ego-centrism occur?

A

2-7 years

280
Q

What is ego-centrism?

A

Ability to only perceive the world from ones own POV

281
Q

What task demonstrates ego-centrism in children?

A

Mountain task

282
Q

At what age does rule-governed play occur?

A

5 years

283
Q

At what age does co-operative play occur?

A

3 years

284
Q

When does one word stage occur?

A

1 year

285
Q

When does two word stage occur?

A

2 years

286
Q

When do basic grammatical sentences form?

A

3 years

287
Q

When does a child have adult speech?

A

5 years

288
Q

When does object permanence occur?

A

9 months

289
Q

When is the superego developed?

A

Latency stage

290
Q

When does theory of mind occur?

A

18 months

291
Q

Age of sensorimotor stage of Piaget?

A

Birth to 24 months

292
Q

Goal of Sensorimotor stage?

A

Object Permanence

293
Q

Age of Pre-operational stage of Piaget?

A

2-7 years

294
Q

Goal of Pre-operational stage?

A

Symbolic thought

295
Q

Age of Concrete stage?

A

7-11 years

296
Q

Goal of concrete stage?

A

Operational thought

297
Q

Age of formal stage of Piaget?

A

Adolescence to adulthood

298
Q

Goal of formal stage?

A

Abstract thought

► Med - MRC Psych (21 decks)

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