Human Development

Question 0

What are two points of self control?

Answer 0

• learning to inhibit impulses

- most children struggle to delay gratification

Question 1

What are three points about the

Answer 1

• a learned behaviour of social priority
• most ‘young’ children do not share voluntarily
• social schemata that makes it beneficial is not yet in place

Question 2

What are two points about gender roles?

Answer 2

• sex is biological

- gender is a social construct

Question 3

What came from Erik Erikson’s theory: the search for self?

Answer 3

Developing an awareness of self as different from others is an important step in social development

Question 4

What are the stages of Erikson’s theory?

Answer 4

Stage 1(birth to 18 months): basic trust vs. mistrust- if needs are met, child learns world is predictable and safe

• if needs are not met, distrust in the world develops
• important event: feeding

Stage 2(18 months to 3 years): autonomy vs. shame and doubt- success in tasks leads to autonomy

• failure leads to fears and a sense of doubt
• important event: toilet training

Stage 3(3 to 6 years): initiative vs. guilt- developing initiative in exploring initiative in exploring and manipulating the environment

• a sense of mastery develops if the child successfully exercises enthusiasm
• failure leads to dependence and regret
• important event- independence

Stage 4(6- 12 years): industry vs. inferiority-
The child gains a sense of confidence and mastery, enjoying development tasks of childhood
- failure leads to feelings of inferiority and incompetence
- important task: school

Stage 5(13- 20 years): identity vs. role confusion- growth and turmoil of adolescence creates an “identity crisis”

• crisis is resolved by forming an identity
• failure to form an identity leads to confusion about adult roles

Stage 6(20- 40 years: intimacy vs. isolation- young adults must commit to lasting intimate and caring relationships
- the alternative is isolation 

Stage 7(40-65 years): generative vs. stagnation- people become aware of their mortality

• they hope to convey information, love, and security to the next generation
• failure leads to stagnation and self-absorption

Stage 8(65+ years): ego integrity vs. despair- assessing whether existence is meaningful and happy, or wasteful and unproductive
- the answer leads to fulfillment or regret

Question 5

What is adolescence?

Answer 5

Adolescence is the period extending from the onset of puberty to early adulthood between ages 12 and 20

Question 6

What is puberty?

Answer 6

Puberty is the the time when the reproductive system matures

Question 7

What happens during the physical development of adolescence?

Answer 7

• Girls enter puberty about 2 years before boys, -preceded by growth spurts,
• hormones trigger development of secondary sexual characteristics, physical features that differentiate the sexes,
• some early-maturers are at a disadvantage as they are seen as outsiders by peers
• such differences are not directly related to have few long-term consequences
• the stress of early or late maturation may help teens become adept at coping

Question 8

What happens during the cognitive development of adolescence?

Answer 8

• most adolescents are in piaget’s “formal operational stage” and can think abstractly and form hypotheses
• imaginary audience is a cognitive distortion in which adolescents see themselves “on stage”
• personal fable is a cognitive distortion in which adolescents believe they are so special that others cannot understand them
• sex differences in cognitive abilities are very small

Question 9

What happens during emotional and social development in adolescence?

Answer 9

• early patterns of adjustment manifest themselves as years Passed
• parents and peers are important influences on self-esteem and personality
• adolescents’ attitudes fall somewhere between those of their parents and peers

Question 10

What is the storm- and -stress theory?

Answer 10

G. Stanley hall
- tumultuous period characterized by extreme mood swings and unpredictable behaviour- average of two conflicts with parents every three days- highest number of conflicts between teenage daughters and mothers

Relates to Erikson’s concept of crisis of identity and independence from parents

Question 11

What do children and adolescents who have friends tend to be more of?

Answer 11

Socially competent

Question 12

What does friendship set the stage for?

Answer 12

Adult intimacy

Question 13

What happens when a friendship falls apart?

Answer 13

A child’s self-confidence is undermined

Question 14

How do adolescents view sexual intimacy?

Answer 14

Viewed as an important and normal part of growing up

Adolescents are having sexual experiences at younger ages

Question 15

What are some facts about adolescents and sexual experiences?

Answer 15

• some are experimenting with intercourse at younger ages
• some are having intercourse more often and with more partners
• most did not know sti or hiv infected people can appear healthy
• sti rates, particularly chlamydia, highest among adolescents
• 40000+ teens aged 15-19 get pregnant each year in Canada

Question 16

What is sex?

Answer 16

Biologically based characteristics that distinguish males and females; production of testosterone and brain differences

Question 17

What is gender?

Answer 17

Psychological phenomenon referring to learned sex-related behaviours and attitudes; involves gender identity and gender roles

Question 18

What is gender identity?

Answer 18

Ones sense of being male or female

Question 19

What does gender roles refer to?

Answer 19

The behaviours that tend to accompany being male or female; many men and women have adopted androgynous behaviours that represent a blend of stereotypically male and female characteristics, but we still live in a gendered society

Question 20

What is gender intensification?

Answer 20

The process of becoming extreme in ones orientation toward maleness and femaleness

Question 21

What is the gender schema theory?

Answer 21

Gender schema theory asserts children and adolescents use their sex as an organizing theme to classify and interpret perceptions about the world and themselves

• children develop shorthand concepts of what boys and girls are like
• may attempt to bring their behaviours and thoughts into conformity with generally accepted gender-specific roles
• adolescent self-esteem is tied to these gender-based perceptions

Question 22

What are some biological influences on gender?

Answer 22

Toy preferences, exposure to higher levels of testosterone in the womb increases rates of “rough and tumble” play in humans, primates and mice, sex segregation during play emerges in humans and primates between 6-12 moths

Question 23

What are some social influences on gender?

Answer 23

• social encouragement of gender consistent behaviour is strongest among father compared to mothers
• a child’s sex creates expectations among caregivers regarding gender-consistent behaviours which are reinforced

Question 24

What is morality?

Answer 24

A system of beliefs, values, and underlying judgements about the rightness or wrongness of human acts

Question 25

When do children begin to develop ideas of right and wrong?

Answer 25

As toddlers and preschoolers

Question 26

When does moral reasoning develop?

Answer 26

Over time, perhaps associated with cognitive development

Question 27

What is kohlbergs theory of moral development?

Answer 27

• how moral reasoning unfolds across the lifespan
• moral reasoning in stages
• stages determined by how participants wrestle with moral dilemmas

Question 28

What are some key principles in kohlbergs model?

Answer 28

• 3 levels, with 2 stages at each level
• an individual can be at only one stage at a given time
• everyone goes through the stages in a fixed order
• each stage is more comprehensive and complex than the preceding
• the same stages occur in every culture

Question 29

What are the kohlberg levels?

Answer 29

Level 1: preconventional morality

• authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions (reward or consequence)
• considered preconventional because children do not yet speak as members of society

Level 2: conventional morality

• views of others matter
• avoidance of blame
• seeking approval
• described as conventional because it assumes that the attitudes expressed would be shared by the community

Level 3: post conventional morality

• abstract notions of justice
• marked by a focus on internal moral principles that transcend society
• what’s right is what protects fundamental human rights and values; things that contradict these rights are wrong
• the rights of others can override obedience to laws/rules

Question 30

What are some criticisms of kohlberg?

Answer 30

• cultural bias- cross-cultural research suggests that moral judgements are not universal- people from individualistic societies tend to score higher than those from collectivist cultures
• low correlation with moral behaviour- only modest correlations to real world moral behaviours
• confound with verbal intelligence- may be measuring people’s ability to talk about and understand problems
• men and women approach moral dilemmas in different ways
  Women: based on a standard of caring for others, maintain harmony in social relations
  Men: based on a standard of justice, importance of fairness

Question 31

What are the 4 general parenting styles?

Answer 31

Permissive- tend to be lenient, little discipline, very affectionate
Authoritarian- very strict, punishing, little affection
Authoritative- supportive but set clear and firm limits- associated with the best social and emotional adjustment
Uninvolved- neglectful and ignoring- children of uninvolved parents seem to struggle most

Question 32

What are some other parenting issues?

Answer 32

• Impact of single-parenthood on children is unclear
• impact of same-sex parents on development is much clearer - no difference from opposite-sex couples in social adjustment, academics, or sexual orientation
• divorce- most children come out of divorce without long-term emotional damage- effects depend on severity of conflict prior to the divorce- the higher the conflict the better the outcome