Human Development Flashcards
Language is slower to develop in…. (5 answers)
- Boys
- Twins
- Large families
- Those from social classes 4 and 5
- Those that lack speech stimulation e.g. deaf and neglected children
Define precocious puberty in girls and boys
- Girls before age 8
- Boys before age 9
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Smiles at the parent, can recognise mum’s face apart; shows preference to human faces.
- 4-6 weeks
- Social development
- Social smile - 6 weeks
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Cooing
- 6-8 weeks
- Language
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Can hold head up. grasp reflex disappears
- 3 months
- Motor
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Babbling
- 3 months
- Language
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Localises sound source
- 3 months
- Sensory
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Squeals with pleasure appropriately. Discriminates smile
- 3 months
- Social development
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Reaches out; oral exploration
- 5 months
- Motor
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Spontaneous babbling and sound experiments
- 5 months
- Language
At what age does the following developmental milestones occur and which domain are they a part of?
Hand to hand transfer rolling over
Palmar grasp
- 6 months
- Motor
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Double syllable sounds such as ‘mama’
- 6 months
- Language
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Localises sound 45cm lateral to either ear
- 6 months
- Sensory
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Cruises around and crawls. Sits unsupported. Picks up objects with pincer grasp
- 9-10 months
- Motor
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Babbles tunefully
- 9-10 months
- Language
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Looks for toys dropped; Peek a boo game
- 9-10 months
- Sensory
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Stranger anxiety followed by object permanence (can enjoy peekaboo)
- 9-10 months
- Social Development
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Stands alone momentarily
- 1 year
- Motor
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
One or two words
- 1 year
- Language
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Separation anxiety
- 1 year
- Social development
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Walks alone. Holds rails and climbs, can jump with both feet. Can build a tower of 3 or 4 cubes and throw a ball (1 X 3). Can use a spoon.
- 18 months
- Motor
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Many intelligible words – up to 40 in some. Uses holophrases.
- 18 months
- Language
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
- 18 months
- Shows rapprochement (hugs when coming back).
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Able to run. Builds tower of 6 cubes (2 X 3)
- 2 years
- Motor
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Makes sentences – telegraphic initially
- 2 years
- Language
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Parallel play. Dry by day
- 2 years
- Social Development
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Goes upstairs 1 foot per step and downstairs 2 feet per step. Copies circle, imitates cross and draws the man on request. Builds tower of 9 cubes (3 X 3)
- 3 years
- Motor
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Speaks in sentences
- 3 years
- Language
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Cooperative play. Imaginary companions
- 3 years
- Social development
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Can skip; copies a cross
- 4 years
- Motor
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Toilet trained mostly
- 4 years
- Social development
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Can hop; copies a triangle.
- 5 years
- Motor
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Fluent speech with grammar use; uses function words
- 5 years
- Language
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Dresses and undresses alone
- 5 years
- Social development
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
Copies a diamond. Can count number of fingers
- 6 years
- Motor
At what age does the following developmental milestone occur and which domain is it a part of?
- 6 years
- Language
3 components of S. Frueud’s Topographical model of the mind
- The conscious system
- The unconscious system
- The preconscious system
The conscious system of S. Freud’s topographical model of the mind
- Receives and process information from the outside world.
- Its contents are communicated via speech and behaviour.
- Attention cathexis refers to the investment of psychic energy on a particular idea or feeling to process
it consciously. - Cathexis is ‘stable’ in the conscious mind.
- Operates secondary process thinking mainly.
The unconscious system of S. Freud’s topographical model of the mind
- Contains the contents of censored or repressed wishes.
- Characterized by primary-process thinking, and is governed by the pleasure principle.
- Shift of cathexis happens very often and quickly
- Evident via parapraxes (Freudian slips) and dreams.
The preconscious system of S. Freud’s topographical model of the mind
- As and when needed service
- Interfaces with both unconscious and conscious - contents of unconscious become conscious by
‘squeezing’ through the preconscious - Maintains the ‘repressive barrier’ to censor unacceptable wishes and desires (not the repressed
contents).
Findings of Harlow’s Experiments with Rhesus monkeys
- These experiments established the importance of contact comfort as basic as the need for food in developing mother-infant bonding.
- Harlow separated rhesus monkeys
from their mothers during their first weeks of life. - Harlow substituted a surrogate mother made from wire or cloth for the real mother.
- The infants preferred the cloth-covered surrogate mother, which provided contact comfort, to the wire covered surrogate, which provided no contact comfort.
This preference was observed irrespective of feeding, i.e. the terry-cloth soft-surrogate mother was preferred even if it did not have a feeding nipple attached to it.
4 Neo-freudian theorists
- Karen Horney
- Eric Fromm
- Aldred Alder
- Harry Stack Sullivan
Erik Erikson’s 8 stages of psychosocial development, and associated virtue age they occur
- Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 12-18 months), hope/insecurity
- Autonomy vs. shame (18 months to 3 years), self-certainty
- Initiative vs. guilt (3 to 6 years), experimentation
- Industry vs. inferiority (6 to 12 years), achievement
- Identity vs. role confusion (Adolescence), identity
- Intimacy vs. isolation (Young adulthood), love
- Generativity vs. stagnation (Middle adulthood), public good
- Integrity vs. despair (Late adulthood), satisfaction
Mahler’s 3 stages of attachment
- Normal autism (0 to 2 m)
- Symbiosis (2 to 5m)
- Separation - individuation phase (5m to 5yrs)
Normal autism phase of Mahler’s stages of attachment (age range and definition)
- 0 to 2 m
- Child spends most time in sleep as if the intrauterine aloofness continues.
Symbiosis phase of Mahler’s stages of attachment (age range and definition)
- 2 to 5m
- Inner and outer world studied via senses but perceives mother and self as one unit.
4 sub-phases of Individuation - separation phase of Mahler’s stages of attachment (age range and definition)
DPRO
a. Differentiation sub-phase: (5 to 10m)
- Slowly appreciates the difference between mother and self
b) Practicing sub-phase: (10 to 18m)
- A gradual increase in interest on the environment; practices exploration.
c) Rapprochement sub-phase: (18 to 24m)
- Alternating drives to be autonomous and dependent - Able to explore alone but requires comfort and reassurance on return.
d) Object constancy sub-phase: (2 to 5yrs)
- Understand that the mother will not be lost if temporarily away; hence able to function independently.
Parallel play
- 2 years
- The child plays along with other children
Co-operative play
- 3 years
- Child interacts with other children in complementary ways like sharing, turn taking etc
Rule-governed play
- 5 years
- Children understand the rules of games
Age that a child can read the time to the hour
4-5 years
Age that a child can read the time to the half hour
5-6 years
Age that a child can read the time to the quarter of an hour
6-7 years
Three behavioural & temperamental styles outlined by Thomas and Chess Study
- Easy
– rhythmic pattern of needs, adapts well, and active, high degree of energy
– 40% - Difficult
– Less predictable, uncomfortable with new experiences, negative mood, react intensely to stimuli, difficult to comfort, fiery response to change
– 10% - Slow to warm up children
– adapts poorly to change, but less active and responds at low intensity
– 15%
Three components of psychic functioning defined in Freud’s structural theory
- Id
- Ego
- Superego
Children adopted before what age do well in terms of attachment patterns?
4-5 years
Oedipus Complex
- Wish to have a libidinal relationship with opposite sex parent (Electra complex in girls) with a desire to exclude the rival parent.
- This lead to a fear of retaliation from the rival parent in the form of castration anxiety in boys and loss of mother’s love in girls.
According to Bowlby, what age period does attachment develop and what age does it peak?
- Develops: 6-18 months
- Peaks: 12 months
Freud’s five psychosexual stages and age they occur
- Oral (0 - 1.5 years)
- Anal (1.5 - 3 years)
- Phallic (3 - 5 years)
- Latency (5 years - puberty, approx 11yrs)
- Genital (Puberty onwards)
Freud’s Oral Psychosexual Stage Characteristics
- 0 - 1.5 years
- Drive discharge is via sucking
- Oral erotogenic zone.
- Oral erotism (sucking, licking, etc.) in early stages
- Oral sadism (biting, chewing) in later stages.
- The ego develops at this stage.
- Establishment of trust
Freud’s Anal Psychosexual Stage Characteristics
- 1.5 - 3 years
- Anal erotogenic zone
- Drive discharge via sphincter behaviour.
- Anal erotism refers to the sexual pleasure in anal functioning.
- Anal sadism refers to the aggressive wishes linked to fecal expulsion.
- Anal fixation is characterized by OCD like pattern – also ambivalence and sadomasochistic tendencies are associated.
Freud’s Phallic Psychosexual Stage Characteristics
- 3 - 5 years
- Genitals become organs of interest; masturbation-like activity noted.
- Oedipus complex – wish to have a libidinal relationship with opposite sex parent (Electra complex in girls) with a desire to exclude the rival parent.
- This leads to a fear of retaliation from the rival parent in the form of castration anxiety in boys and loss of mother’s love in girls.
- Electra complex in girls include penis envy, a wish to have penis is accompanied by blaming the mother for absence of penis; later this becomes a secret wish to displace mother as object of father’s love and bear his baby.
- At the resolution of Oedipus and Electra complexes, identification with the aggressor i.e. dad for a boy and mum for a girl occurs
- Super- ego develops from introjection of parental values.
- Abraham divided this into early partial genital (true phallic phase) and later mature genital phase.
Freud’s Latency Psychosexual Stage Characteristics
- 5 years - puberty (approx 11yrs)
- Socialisation
- Interest in peers seen.
- Sexual energy sublimated towards school work, hobbies and friends
- Development of superego
Freud’s Genital Psychosexual Stage Characteristics
- Biological maturation occurs
- Genital sexuality is born.
- Establishment of mature object relationships
- True self identity is born
What are the two most stable temperaments in children?
- Negative emotionality (fear, etc)
2. Reactions to new situations (inhibition or neophobia)
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
what the experiment involved, three levels and six stages
- Stagewise process where reasons for making a judgment in a hypothetical experiment (Heinz Dilemma) are studied in children
- Reasons are more important than the actual judgment made.
- On this basis, Kohlberg identified 3 levels and 6 stages.
Level 1: Preconventional morality (0-10 years)
- Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation
- Stage 2: Reward orientation/ Instrumental relativism
Level 2: Conventional morality (approximately 13-16 years)
- Stage 3: Concordance orientation
- Stage 4: Social order or Authority orientation
Level 3: Postconventional morality (approximately 16-20 years)
- Stage 5: Social contract or legalistic orientation
- Stage 6: Universal Ethical orientation
Preconventional component of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Level 1 Pre-conventional morality (7-12 years to middle childhood):
- In this stage, the children decide right or wrong according to the consequences.
- If an action leads to punishment it must be bad and if it leads to reward it must be good.
i. Punishment and obedience orientation
ii. Reward orientation/ Instrumental relativism
Conventional component of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Level 2 Conventional morality (approximately 13-16 years): - Here the children believe that social rules and the expectation of the others determine what acceptable or unacceptable behaviour is.
iii. Concordance orientation
iv. Social order or Authority orientation
Postconventional component of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Level 3 Postconventional morality (approximately 16-20 years)
- Here what is right is based on an individual’s understanding of universal ethical principles.
- These are often abstract and ill-defined, but it might include the preservation of life at all costs and the importance of human dignity
- Level 3 cannot be considered a part of the normal or expected course of development and instead represents a philosophical ideal.
v. Social contract or legalistic orientation
vi. Universal Ethical orientation
Punishment and obedience orientation
- Stage 1 of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
- Within preconventional level (level 1)
- Obedience to rules to avoid punishment
Reward orientation/ Instrumental relativism
- Stage 2 of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
- Within preconventional level (level 1)
- What brings rewards is right. ‘tit for tat’ approach seen.
Concordance Orientation
- Stage 3 of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
- Within conventional level (level 2)
- What pleases others is right.
- What the majority thinks right is right.
- Also called Good boy/good girl orientation.
- Conforms to avoid disapproval and meet expectations of others.
- Being good is important and having good motives and showing concern
Authority Orientation
- Stage 4 of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
- Within conventional level (level 2)
- Upholds laws and social rules to avoid the censure of the authorities and feelings of guilt about not doing one’s duty.
- Maintaining social order is the goal.
Social contract or legalistic orientation
- Stage 5 of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
- Within post-conventional level (level 3)
- Actions guided by principles commonly agreed by one’s group on as essential to public welfare (relative values) and democracy is upheld while individual’s life is given more respect than written codes of law.
Universal Ethical orientation
- Stage 6 of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
- Within post-conventional level (level 3)
- Actions guided by self-chosen ethical principles.
- Laws and social principles usually valid because they are based on these principles.
- Social rules can be broken if universal morality is not upheld.
- May not be achieved by everyone- Only 15% eventually achieve level 3.
Define Imprinting
- Special primitive form of learning wherein during the early period of development (called critical or sensitive phase) a young animal is highly sensitive to a certain stimulus that provokes a specific behaviour pattern
4 characteristics of Imprinting
- Irreversibility
- Sensitive period
- Specificity
- Life-long retention
Social disengagement theory of old age
- Mutual withdrawal of society and the individual occurs
- Increased individuality and shrinking life space are inevitable moves towards death.
(the old people disengage themselves)
Social re-engagement theory of old age
- aka activity loss theory
- Ageist society reduces the social interaction that older adults can have
- Withdrawal is not mutual but forced.
(Old people want to re-engage but can’t)
Social exchange theory of old age
- Age robs people of the ability to engage in reciprocal roles
- Retirement is a special social contract wherein productivity is exchanged for increased leisure and decreased responsibilities.
(Exchange work for leisure)
Socio-emotional selectivity theory
- Wise investment of social energy in old age is to limit social interaction to those who are most familiar.
(Selective those you are closest to)
Pre-retirement phase of retirement
Increasing anxiety with the retirement of friends and colleagues.
Honeymoon phase of retirement
Immediate post retirement phase where increased freedom is enjoyed.
Disenchantment phase of retirement
Slowing down occurs, feels let down, worse if inadequately prepared for retirement.
Reorientation phase of retirement
Explores new avenues, more realistic.
Stability phase of retirement
Makes choices, mastery attained in chosen leisure
Termination phase of retirement
Frailty, death.
Good enough mother concept
- Winnicott
- Refers to the fact that a mother need not be perfect – but good enough to provide growth sustaining environment (holding).
Four stages of Piaget’s model of cognitive development (and age they occur)
- Sensorimotor (0 - 2 years)
- Pre-operational (2 - 7 years)
- Concrete operational (7 - 11 years)
- Formal Operational (11 years +)
Features of Sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s model of cognitive development
- Exercising reflexes (0 to 1 m) to smoothen them
- Primary circular (1 to 4 m) reactions where reflexes extend to objects
- Secondary circular ( 4 to 10 m) where goal direction seen
- Object permanence starts by 9m
- Coordinated actions with added element of curiosity forms tertiary circular ( 12 to 18 m) reactions – here novelty is sought.
- Mental combinations occur
- Thoughts dominate actions.
Features of Pre-operational stage of Piaget’s model of cognitive development
Preconceptual stage 2 to 4 years
Intuitive stage 4 to 7 years.
Features of Concrete Operational stage of Piaget’s model of cognitive development
- Ability to decentre, conserve, seriate and declining egocentrism noted
- Perspective taking starts to develop
- But transitivity tasks still pose a challenge. E.g. ‘4>2, 2>1, which is the greatest of all?’ - is still difficult.
Features of Formal Operational stage of Piaget’s model of cognitive development
- Here manipulation of ideas and propositions are seen – 1st order operations
- Soon, reasoning solely based on verbal argument construction develops – 2nd order operations.
- Hypothetico- deductive reasoning develops in a proportion of children after age 12.
Bowlby’s Pre-attachment Phase
- Birth to 8 or 12 weeks
- Babies orient to their mothers
Bowlby’s Indiscriminate Attachment Phase
- 8 - 12 weeks to 6 months
- Attachment in making
- Allows strangers to handle, infants become attached to one or more persons in the environment
Bowlby’s Clear-cut Attachment Phase
- 6 to 24 months
- Preferential attachment, separation anxiety, object permanence, stranger anxiety.
- At the later part, weakened stranger anxiety; other
attachment figures may also present.
According to Bowlby’s attachment theory, at what point is the mother figure seen as independent.
25 months
Age that infant orients visually without discrimination
First few months
Age that infant shows preferential orientation towards selected persons
5-7 months
Age of onset of preferential attachment and stranger anxiety
7-9 months
Age of formation of goal-directed partnership between child and caregiver
9-36 months
Age of lessening of attachment behaviors and attachment figure can be substituted
School age
Age that attachment behaviour typically peaks
12-18 months
Age that babies can speak 18-40 words
18 months
Age that babies can repetiively babble
9 months
Age that babies can use the correct grammer
2 years
Age that babies can use words ‘mama’ and ‘dada’
1 year
Age that babies can differentiate familiar and unfamiliar faces
3 months
Age that children develop a fear of imaginary creatures
5+ years
Age that children develop a fear of animals
3 years
Age that children develop a fear of the dark
4-5 years
Age that children develop a fear of illness and death
Teenage onwards
Age that children develop a fear of loud noises
Infancy
Age that children develop a fear of falling
Infancy
Age of development of telegraphic speech, grammatically pairs words with vocabulary more than 240 words
24 months (2 years)
Age of development of language akin to adult speech
60 months (5 years)
Age of development of early comprehension of syntax
36 months (3 years)
Perceptual Functions at Birth
- Discriminate brightness
- Carry out eye tracking
- Visual acuity is significantly impaired
- Focusing is fixed at 20cm
Perceptual Functions at 2-4 months
- Depth perception (as evidenced by visual cliff experiments).
Perceptual Functions at 4 months
- Accomodation
- Colour Vision
Perceptual Functions at 6 months
- 6:6 acuity is achieved
Secure Attachment Features
- Type B
- 70%
- Plays independently when the mother is in the vicinity (secure base effect).
- Distress when the mother is leaving
- Seeks contact on the return of the mother and gets quickly comforted by the mother, not a stranger.
Anxious Resistant Attachment Features
- Type C
- 15%
- Fussy and cries a lot and cannot use the mother as a secure base to explore around.
- Very high levels of distress are seen when the mother is leaving.
- But not comforted easily even on her return; appears ambivalent about her return.
- Active resistance to stranger’s efforts to pacify.
- Highly caregiver directed low play behaviour.
- Greater in Japanese and Israeli families.
- Furthermore, this pattern is also common among victims of bullying.
Anxious Avoidant Attachment Features
- Type A
- 15%
- Indifferent attitude to the mother is leaving the room or entering the room
- Keeps playing indifferent to mother’s presence.
- Distress when alone, not when the mother is leaving. - Stranger can comfort the child easily.
- Highly environment directed, low attachment behaviour.
- Greater in the West.
- Perpetrators of bullying mostly have this pattern.
Disorganised Attachment Features
- Type D
- This is seen in maltreated or maternally deprived children.
- The child has an insecure, dazed look and acts as if it is frightened of the mother.
- This pattern may be a precursor to later personality difficulties or dissociative experiences.
- Mother may have an experience of being abused as a child.
Secure Adult Attachment Features (Main)
- Those who had secure attachment provide spontaneous and coherent answers with the ability to talk freely about negative experiences
- In childhood type B Ainsworth.
Dismissive Adult Attachment Features (Main)
- Those who had an avoidant (insecure) pattern often minimise their experiences, do not elaborate on them and do not use colourful metaphors during the discourse
- Type A Ainsworth in childhood (avoidant)
Entangled Adult Attachment Features (Main)
- Those who had insecure but ambivalent (enmeshed) attachment use multiple emotionally laden responses and ramble excessively
- Type C resistant in childhood
Disorganised Adult Attachment Features (Main)
- Broken continuity and interrupted the logical flow of thoughts is seen in those who had insecure disorganised attachment pattern
- Type D, disorganised in childhood
