Human Body FINAL Flashcards
1
Q
What is anatomy?
A
Studies the structure of the body
2
Q
What is physiology?
A
Describes how the body functions
3
Q
What are the 12 major organ systems?
A
- Integumentary system
- skeletal system
- muscular system
- nervous system
- endocrine system
- circulatory system
- lymphatic system
- the immune system
- respiratory system
- digestive system
- urinary system
- reproductive system
4
Q
Describe the anatomical position
A
The body is standing erect with the face forward, arms at the sides, toes and palms of hands are directed forward
5
Q
Describe a typical cell
A
- many cellular compenents
Includes: - cell membrane
- cilia
- flagellum
- microvilli
- nucleus
- chromatin
- nucleolus
- nucleoplasm
- nuclear membrane
- cytoplasm
- cytosol
- organelles
- mitochondria
- endoplasmic reticulum, rough ER, Smooth ER
- Golgi apparatus
- Ribosomes, free, fixed
- lysosomes
- cytoskeleton
- centrioles
- inclusion bodies
6
Q
Define disease
A
is the failure of the body to function normally.
7
Q
define infection
A
the invasion of the body by a pathogen and the symptoms that develop in response to this invasion
8
Q
Define antibiotic
A
- a chemical used to treat bacterial infections
- broad-spectrum antibiotic destroys various bacteria
- narrow spectrum antibiotic destroys only a few types
9
Q
Define commensal
A
- organisms living in a harmonious and beneficial relationship with each other.
- the organism derive nutritional or other environmental benefits from the other
10
Q
definition of communicable disease
A
any disease that can be spread from one host to another.
11
Q
definition of noncommunicable disease
A
a disease that cannot be transmitted directly or indirectly from host to host.
12
Q
define epidemic disease
A
a disease acquired by many people in a given area over a short period of time
13
Q
define endemic disease
A
always present in a population
14
Q
define pandemic
A
a worldwide epidemic
15
Q
define epidemiology
A
the study of the occurrence and distribution of a disease in a population
16
Q
define incubation period
A
the lapsed period of time from the exposure of a person to a pathogen to the development of the symptoms of the disease
17
Q
define normal flora
A
- a group of microorganisms that colonize a host without causing disease.
- microorganisms that are not pathogenetic in one area may become pathogenetic when transferred to another area.
18
Q
define nosocomial infection
A
a hospital acquired infection
19
Q
define reservoir of infection
A
a continual source of infection.
20
Q
resistance
A
the ability to ward off diseases a lack of resistance is called susceptibility.
21
Q
define sterilization
A
a process that destroys all living organisms
22
Q
define vector
A
a carrier of pathogens from host to host. (misquito)
23
Q
where are the portals of entry that pathogens enter?
A
respiratory, gastrointenstinal, genitourinary tracts, eye, skin, and parental route. (injuries).
24
Q
where are the portals of exit that pathogens leave the body?
A
respiratory, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, skin, eyes, breasts,
25
how do pathogens spread?
- person to person
- environment to person
- tiny animals (insects) to person
26
What is person to person contact?
the virus spreads from one person to another, might be through droplet contact, or contamination,
27
what is environment to person contact?
contact with contaminated water, air, food, or soil
28
what is tiny animal to person contact?
the use of insects in the spread of diease, e.g., being bitten bya misquito can give you malaria.
29
what are the functions of the skin?
- acts as a mechanical and chemical barrier
- protects internal structures and organs
- participates in the immune response
- performs an excretory function
- acts as a gland by synthesizing vitamin D
- performs a sensory role by housing sensory receptors (touch, pressure, pain, temperature)
- plays an important role in the regulation of body temperature
30
what is the structure and function of the mouth?
- food is ingested into the mouth where digestion begins right away
- moistenes the food in the mouth
- include teeth, tongue, salivary glands, the
31
what is the purpose of the teeth?
- is to chew food and begin mechanical digestion
- break down large pieces of food
32
structure and function of the tongue
- muscular organ, occupies floor of mouth
- facilitates chewing
- facilitates swallowing
- repositions food in the mouth
- molds food into a ball like mass
- contains taste buds
33
what are the 3 pairs of salivary glands?
1. parotid
2. submandibular
3. sublingual
34
what is the most important function of saliva?
- soften and moisten food and facilitate swallowing
35
what is the structure and function of the pharynx?
- involved in swallowing
36
what are the 3 parts of the pharynx?
1. nasopharynx (not involved in digestion)
2. oropharynx
3. laryngopharynx
37
what is the structure and function of the esophagus?
- carries food to the stomach
- presence of food stimulates peristaltic activity and causes the food to move through the esophagus
38
what are the 2 esophageal sphincters and what do they do?
1. pharyngoesophageal: located at the top -
2. gastroesophageal: located lower -
39
structure and function of the stomach
- pouchlike organ that lies in the upper left part of the abdominal cavity under the diaphragm
- receives food from the esophagus
- regulates the rate partially digested food is delivered to the small intestine
- secretes gastric juice
- digests food: plays a role in mechanical digestion
- absorbs small amounts of water and dissolved substances
- secrets gastric hormones
40
Regions of the stomach
- Fundus:
- Body:
- Pylorus: gatekeeper
41
Muscles of the stomach
- longitudinal
- oblique
- circular
- this arrangement allows the stomach to churn and mix food with gastric juices to create a thick, pastelike mixture called chyme and generate peristaltic waves that squeeze food toward the pylorus
42
Small intestine, location and parts:
- located in the central and lower abdominal cavity
- held in place by mesentery
- receives chyme from the stomach and digestive juices (bile) from the liver and pancreas (digestive enzymes)
- digestion is completed in the small intestine
- absorbs the end products of digestion and key substances like iron and vitamins
- moved unabsorbed content into the large intestine
43
what are the 3 parts of the small intestine?
1. The duodenum: meeting point of digestion, receives chyme from the stomach and secretions from several accessory organs of digestion. this is where most digestion and absorption occur as well as the first third of the jejunum.
2. the jejunum: second segment of the small intestine. digestion occurs in the 1st and 3rd of the jejunum
3. the ileum: 3rd segment of the small intestine. function is to complete the process of absorption of digestive end products, vitamin b12, bile salts. contains peyes patches (lympathic tissue) which plays a role in the immune response to bacteria, fatty acids in the iluem causes it to slow gut mobility.
44
what is part of the large intestine?
- cecum
- colon
- rectum
- anal canal
45
what are the functions of the large intestine?
1. absorption of water and electrolytes
2. synthesizes of certain vitamins by the intestinal bacteria
3. temporary storage site for waste
4. elimination of waste from the body
46
what does the liver do?
- essential for life and performs many vital functions
- synthesis of bile salts and secretion of bile
- synthesis of plasma proteins
- storage
- detoxification
- excretion
- metabolism of carbohydrates
- metabolism of protein
- metabolism of fats
- phagocytosis
47
what is the gallbladder?
- function is to concentrate and store bile
48
function of the pancreas?
- Endocrine system. The pancreas secretes hormones, including the blood sugar-regulating hormones: insulin and glucagon.
Exocrine system. The pancreas also secretes enzymes into your digestive tract through a duct into your duodenum.
49
what is the function of the skeletal system?
- bones of the lower extremities support the weight of the body
- bones support and protect the soft body organs
- with the assistance of muscles, the skeletal system enables the body to move about
- bones participate in the regulation of plasma calcium
- red bone marrow produces blood cells
50
Describe bone tissue
- osseous tissue (bone)
- ossification (bone formation)
51
what is compact bone?
dense, hard bone tissue found primarily in the shafts of long bones and on the outer surfaces of other bones
- compact
- provides great strength
52
what is spongy bone?
located primarily at the ends of long bones and in the center of other bones. less dense than compact bones.
53
what are the parts of long bone?
- diaphysis: long shaft of bone.
- composed of compact bone
- epipysis: enlarged ends of the long bone.
- meets with a second bone at a
joint
- consist of a thin layer of
compact bone overlying
spongy bone and covered by
cartilage
-epiphyseal disc: growing long bone
contains hyaline cartilage near
its ends. longitudinal bone
growth occurs here.
- medullary cavity: hollow center of the
diaphysis. filled with yellow
bone marrow. stores fat. lined
with connective tissue
- periosteum: tough, fibrous connective
tissue membrane that covers the
outside of diaphysis. on the outside
of the bone. protects the bone,
serves as a point of attachment for
muscle, and contains blood vessels.
- articular cartilage: outer surface of the
epiphysis. forms a smooth, shiny
surface that decreases friction within a
joint.
54
what is the process of bone formation?
- ossification
- begins with late rmbryonic period with the formation of fibrous connective tissue and hyaline cartilage that is shaped like a mini skeleton.
as the fetus matures, the cartilage and conenctive tissue change into bone.
55
what are the two ways of ossification?
1. intramembranous ossification
2. endochondral ossification
56
what are the changes to the skeletal system as one ages?
- bones are less strong and more brittle
- older women at higher risk of developing osteoporosis
- bones fracture more easily due to osteoporosis
- decrease in new bone growth and in bone mass
- tendons and ligaments are less flexible
- joints have decreased ROM
- joint stiffness
- intervertebral discs shrink.
- bod height decreases, and the thoracic spine curves
57
what are the 3 types of muscle tissue?
1. skeletal muscle.
2. smooth muscle
3. cardiac muscle
58
what is the structure and function of skeletal muscle
- attached to the bone
- looks like stripes (striations)
- move the skeleton, maintain posture, and stabilize joints
59
what is the structure and function of smooth muscle?
- found in the walls of the viscera or organs like the stomach, intestines, urinary bladder, and in bronchioles and blood vessels
- the function is related to the organ in which it is found
- smooth muscle in the stomach helps churn and mash food.
60
what is the structure and function of cardiac muscle?
- found only in the heart
- functions to pump blood into blood vessels
- cardiac muscle fibers: long branching cells that fit tightly together at junctions
61
Describe the function of the heart valves
- has 4 valves
- is to keep the blood flowing in a forward directions
- 2 atrioventricular valves
- 2 semilunar valves
62
Describe blood flow through the heart
Right atrium > tricuspid valve > right ventricle > pulmonic semilunar valve > pulmonary trunk > right and left pulmonary arteries > pulmonary capillaries within the lungs > four pulmonary veins > left atrium > Biscupid valve ( mitral valve) > left ventricle > aortic semilunar valve > aorta
63
What is the purpose of the atrioventricular valves?
The atrioventricular (AV) valves separate the atria from the ventricles on each side of the heart and prevent backflow of blood from the ventricles into the atria during systole. Cross section of heart indicating heart valves
64
which valves are part of the semilunar valves?
1. pulmonic valve
2. aortic valve
65
what is the function of the pulmonic valve?
Your pulmonary valve manages blood flow from your heart’s right ventricle to your pulmonary trunk. Its main function is to help oxygen-poor blood reach your lungs, where it gains oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide. Your pulmonary valve has three leaflets that open and close to start and stop blood flow toward your lungs with each heartbeat.
66
what is the function of the aortic valve?
Your aortic valve opens to let blood flow from your left ventricle to your aorta. It closes to prevent blood from flowing in the wrong direction. The closed valve keeps blood from leaking from your aorta back into your heart.
67
what are the functions of the nervous system?
1. sensory function
2. integrative function
3. motor
68
what does the sensory function do?
gather information from the inside of the body and from the outside environment
- then carries this information to the CNS
69
what does the integrative function do?
- sensory information brought to the CNS is interpreted.
70
what does the motor function do?
- convey information from the CNS toward the muscles and glands of the body.
- carry out plans made by the CNS
71
what does the nervous system do?
- thinking
- feeling
- moving
- seeing
- hearing
- responding
- planning
- remembering
- awareness
72
what are the 2 divisions of the nervous system?
1. the central nervous system
2. the peripheral nervous system
73
what is included in the CNS?
brain and spinal cord
74
what consists of the PNS
nerves that connect the CNS with the rest of the body
75
list 3 functions of the spinal cord.
The three major functions of the spinal cord are the conduction of motor information traveling down the spinal cord, the conduction of sensory information in the reverse direction, and acting as the center for conducting certain reflexes. The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system.
76
what happens to the nervous system as you age?
- at age 30 the number of neurons decreases, can cause forgetfulness,
- impulse conduction speed decreases
- neurotransmitters are reduced which slow reflexes
- efficacy of the glymphatic system decreases which decreases the clearance of protein waste from the aging brain
77
What are the functions of the endocrine system?
- communicates through hormones
- help regulate metabolic processes
- hormones play a role in growth, reproduction,
- help regulate water and electrolyte balance
- hormones help your body meet the demands of infection, trauma, and stress
78
Define endocrine gland
- secrete chemical substances called hormones
- ductless glands
- secretes hormones directly into blood
79
define exocrine gland
- have ducts in which the exocrine secretions are released before reaching the body's surfaces
- secretes mucus, sweat, saliva, digestive enzymes
- ducts carry secretions outside of the body
80
define hormone
- a chemical messenger that influences or controls the activities of other tissues or organ.
- either proteins or steroids
- targets specific tissue
81
define target organ
- the part of the hormone (key) fits into its receptor (lock) on the target.
- A target organ is an organ in the body that is most affected by a specific chemical, drug, bacteria, or other substance
82
How do negative feedback systems work?
Example:
- the pattern of ACTH and cortisol secretion is one example of a negative feedback loop.
- ACTH is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, stimulates its target organ (adrenal cortex) to secrete cortisol. As blood levels of cortisol increase, the cortisol in the blood chemically tells the anterior pituitary gland to slow further secretion of ACTH, the diminished ACTH in turn decreases the secretion of cortisol by the adrenal cortex.
83
what is specific immunity?
- immune cells can respond or adapt to newly encountered pathogens or foreign agents.
- SPECIFICITY: provides protection against one specific substance but not others
- MEMORY: responds faster and more robustly to re-exposure to the same pathogen or foreign agent.
84
What is nonspecific immunity?
- we are born with certain defense mechanisms that do not require prior exposure to the pathogen or foreign agent.
- lines of defense
- mechanical barriers, chemical barriers, and reflexes:
- phagocytosis, inflammation, fever, protective proteins, natural killer cells.
- work against all types of foreign agents
85
What are T cells?
- lymphocytes
- stem cells in bone marrow
- blood carrier the lymphocytes throughout the body and half of them travel to the thymus gland where they mature and differentiate into T cells
- T = thymus-derived lymphocytes
- The blood then carrier the T cells away from the thymus gland to lymphatic tissues where they live, work and reproduce
- make up to 80% of blood lymphocytes
86
What are B cells?
- take up residence in lymphatic tissue, chiefly the lymph nodes
- 20-30% of lymphocytes
- b is for Bone
87
One function of T cells
- attack antigens
- attack antigens directly through cell to cell contact, called mediated immunity (CMI)
88
One function of B cells
- attack antigens
- attack antigens indirectly by secreting antibodies. this is called antibody-mediated immunity
88
What are the effects on the immune system as you age
- T cell and B cell function is deficient
- decrease in macrophage activity
- more prone to develop infections
- recover more slowly
- a higher incident of cancer
- reduced fever response to infection, hard time dealing with them
- increased levels of circulating autoantibodies - more prone to develop autoimmune disease
- often take drugs that suppress the immune system
88
Where are the kidneys located?
high on the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity, behind the parietal peritoneum.
- cushioned and protected by renal fascia, adipose tissue pads, and lower rib cage
89
What are the structure of kidneys?
- reddish brown beanlike structure enclosed in a tough fibrous capsure.
- 4 in/10cm long and 2 inch/5cm wide, 1inch/2.5 cm thick.
90
Structure: what are the 3 distinc regions of the kidneys?
1. renal cortex
2. the renal medulla: darker triangular structure, located deeper within the kidney. forms stripped cone-shaped regions called renal pyramids.
3. outer region
91
what is the function of the kidneys?
- excrete nitrogenous waste like urea, uric acid, ammonia, and creatinine
- regulate blood volume by determining the amount of water excreted
- help regulate the electrolyte content of the blood
- play a major role in the regulation of acid-base balance (blood pH)
- play a role in the long-term regulation of blood pressure
- play a role in the regulation of red blood cell production through the secretion of erythropoietin
92
what is the structure, location, and function of ureters?
- connect kidney to bladder
- originate in the renal pelvis of the kidneys
- 10-13 inches
- slender, muscular tubes capable of peristalsis
- urine moves along ureters from the kidneys to bladder in response to gravity and peristalsis
93
What is the structure, function, and location of the urinary bladder?
- temporary reservoir for the storage of urine
- below the peritoneal membrane and behind the symphysis pubis (when empoty)
- when full, it rises above the abdominal cavity
- urge to urinate when the bladder has 200 mL of urine
- a moderately full bladder contains 500 mL of urine
- an overdistended bladder contains more than 1 L of urine
94
What are the 4 layers that make up the wall of the bladder?
1. The innermost layer is the mucous membrane: which contains thicknesses of transitional epithelium.
2. submucosa and consists of connective tissue and elastic fibers.
3. muscle: The involuntary smooth muscle is the detrusor muscle.
4. The outermost layer is the serosa.
95
Age related changes to the urinary tract
- by age 80 there's a 50% decrease in the number of nephron units which creates a diminished ability to concentrate urine
- GFR decline with age, drugs are excreted more slowly and at risk of OD.
- GFR decline can cause difficulty excreting excess blood so IV fluids need to be administered slowly and overhydration is common
- urinary bladder shrinks and becomes less able to contract and relax. void more frequently
- increase risk of bladder infection
96
urinary system disorders
azotemia: presence of nitrogenous waste in blood
- polydipsia: excessive thirst
- glucosuria: glucose in urine
- kaliuretic: excretion of potassium in urine
- oliguria: insufficient urine production in response to protracted hypotension
- nocturia: needing to urinate at night
polyuria: excessive production of urine
dysuria: difficulty in passing urine
- natriuresis: excretion of sodium in the urine
- enuresis: involuntary discharge of urine
- pyelonephritis: kidney infection
-renal calculi: kidney stones
- renal failure: kidney failure
97
what are electrolytes?
- Electrolytes are minerals that carry an electric charge. They’re found in your blood, urine and sweat and are vital to specific processes that keep your body functioning as it should.
- Electrolytes are substances that have a natural positive or negative electrical charge when dissolved in water. They help your body regulate chemical reactions, maintain the balance between fluids inside and outside your cells, and more. They’re also a key way to diagnose a wide range of medical conditions and diseases.
98
how do electrolytes function in the body?
- Electrolytes are essential for keeping your nervous system and muscles functioning. They also ensure that your body’s internal environment is optimal by keeping you hydrated and helping regulate your internal pH.
99
sodium:
Sodium plays a critical role in helping your cells maintain the right balance of fluid. It’s also used to help cells absorb nutrients. It’s the most abundant electrolyte ion found in the body
100
magnesium
Magnesium helps your cells as they turn nutrients into energy. Your brain and muscles rely heavily on magnesium to do their job.
101
potassium
Your cells use potassium alongside sodium. When a sodium ion enters a cell, a potassium ion leaves, and vice versa. Potassium is also especially critical to your heart function. Too much or too little can cause serious heart problems.
102
calcium
Calcium is a key element in your body, but it does more than just build strong bones and teeth. It’s also used to control your muscles, transmit signals in your nerves, manage your heart rhythm and more. Having too much or too little calcium in your blood can cause a wide range of symptoms across different systems in your body.
103
chloride
Chloride (the name for a chlorine ion) is the second-most abundant ion in the body. It’s also a key part of how your cells maintain their internal and external balance of fluid. It also plays a role in maintaining the body’s natural pH balance.
104
phosphate:
Phosphate is a phosphorous-based molecule that’s a key part of transporting chemical compounds and molecules outside your cells. It helps your cells metabolize nutrients, and it’s also a key part of molecules called nucleotides, which are the building blocks that make up your DNA
105
bicarbonate
Not all the carbon dioxide that your body makes gets sent to your lungs for you to breathe it out. Instead, some gets recycled into bicarbonate, which your body uses to keep your blood pH levels normal.
106
Structure and function of the male reproductive system:
- produces, nourishes, transports spem
- deposists sperm in the female reproductive tract
- secretes hormones
107
What are the function of the testes?
- produce sperm
- secretion of testosterone
- suspended in the scrotum
108
structure and function of the female reproductive system:
- produce eggs, secretes hormones, and nurtures and protects developing fetus during pregnant
109
ovaries:
- 2 almond shaped ovaries on either side of the uterus
- production of eggs
-
110
ovulation:
- once a month the ovarian follicle bursts and ejects a mature egg in the surrounding layer of cells.
111
reproductive system as you age
- ovaries behind to atrophy and estrogen decreases causing symptoms of menopause, periods cease signaling end of reproductive years
- a decrease of estrogen causes a change in the accessory organs. make more prone to vaginal infections
- intercourse may become uncomfortable due to the decrease in vaginal secretions
- decrease in estrogen can cause weak bones and cause osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease
- size of uterus decreases, and uterus, bladder, and rectum weaken which drops the organs down
- breast tissue changes/saggy breasts
- around age 40 testicular function declines, decrease in testosterone, decreased sperm count.
