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Plovdiv And Sofia Exam > Human Body > Flashcards

Human Body Flashcards

1
Q
A
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2
Q

What are the 4 primary tissues and their role

A

Epithelium:
covers the body surface and
lines body cavities. These tissues are held together by tight or gap junctions, desmosomes or adhering junctions.

Muscle:
aids movement. Three
main muscle types are cardiac,
skeletal and smooth muscles.

Connective tissue (CT): supports and protects body tissues and organs. These include specialized CT such as
adipose tissue (fat), blood. bone and Fibrous CT such as loose and dense connective tissue found in tendons and ligaments.

Nervous tissue:
consists of neurons that provide a means of rapid internal communication by transmitting electrical impulses (action potential).

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3
Q

What is the integumentary system

A

an organ system consisting of the skin, hair,
nails, and exocrine glands (i.e., sweat and sebaceous glands)

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4
Q

What is the skin (2)

A

The skin is the largest organ in the body and it’s a thickened keratinized epithelium.

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5
Q

What are the specialise function of the skin (3) and how does skin regulate the body temperature

A

The specialized functions of the skin include:
- initial barrier to the external environment (epidermis),
- communicates with the brain via sensory receptors
- regulation of core body temperature= Through specialized mechanisms such as evaporation of sweat (cooling) and
vasodilation of blood vessels (heating), the skin controls body temperature.

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6
Q

What are the types of layers in the skin

A

The epidermis (superficial layer) and underlying dermis makes up the skin.

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7
Q

What structures are found within the epidermis in the skin (4)
And the function of the epidermis

A

Structures found within the epidermis include:
- ducts of the sweat gland, keratinocytes, Langerhans (phagocyte) and melanocytes.
The epidermis is an avascular region and receives its nutrients via diffusion of fluids from the dermis.

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8
Q

What are the 2 layers of the dermis in the skin called
what is the function of the dermis
What structures does it contain (5)

A

The dermis is under the epidermis and consists of 2 layers outer papillary (contains glands) and lower reticular layer (contains dense connective tissue and gland roots).
The dermis gives the skin its strength and elasticity, contains structures such as sweat glands, hair follicle, sebaceous gland, blood vessels as well as receptors sensitive to temperature and pressure.

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9
Q

What is the hypodermis of the skin and its function

A

is the innermost layer of skin contains largely adipose tissue (fat) which provides insulation and shock absorption Vitamin D, an essential vitamin necessary for the absorption of calcium from food, its precursor is produced by ultraviolet (UV) light striking the skin

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10
Q

What are the 3 pigments controlling colour of skin

A

melanin, carotene, and haemoglobin

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11
Q

What does the skin protect the underlying tissue from (3)

A

pathogens, mechanical damage, and UV light.

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12
Q

What is:
epithelium
Gap junction
tight junction
Desmosomes
adhering junction
connecting junction
tendons ligaments
action potential
sebaceous gland
Keratinocytes
melanocytes
Langerhans
UV radiation
Melanin

A

Epithelium: A thin, continuous,
protective layer of cells.

Gap junction: A channel that
connects the cytoplasm of neighboring cells.

Tight junction: A strand of protein
that helps stop leaks between cells in a tissue by forming a gasket-like seal.

Desmosomes: intercellular junctions that provide strong adhesion between cells

Melanin: natural skin pigment that makes hair,eyes and skin appear darker

Carotene: converted by the body into vitamin A

Adhering junction: A weld-like
junction between cells that keeps the cells attached to one another.

Connective tissue: Tissue that
connects, separates and supports all
other types of tissues in the body.

Tendons - connect muscle to bone.
Ligaments connect one bone to
another.

Action potential - The passage of
electrical impulse along the length of
the axon.

Sebaceous gland:
Small oil-producing gland present in the skin of mammals.

Keratinocytes - Cells of the epidermis (The outer layer of the two main layers of the skin) that makes keratin, a tough, water - insoluble protein.

Melanocytes - Cells in the deepest
layer of the epidermis that produce a brown - black pigment called melanin (gives the skin its color).

Langerhans - Are phagocytes (cell
eaters) that consume bacteria or
viruses.

UV radiation - stimulates the melanin producing cells of the epidermis.

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13
Q

What is acne

A

Information resulting from bacteria infecting the sebaceous (oil) glands

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14
Q

What is the vitiligo

A

White patches form on-skin due to death (Apoptosis) of melanocytes

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15
Q

What are the main structures of locomotor system (6)

A

Bones, skeletal muscles, joints, cartilage, tendon and ligament

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16
Q

What is mineral storage
How is blood cells formed

A

Reservoir for calcium and phosphorus, hormone changes is elicit their release or deposit does regulating their concentration

Bone marrow in some bones produces platelets, white, red blood cells

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17
Q

What is the 2 types of bones based on the tissue it contains

What are the 5 types of bone names

A

Compact (dense) and spongy bone (lacy and delicate)

Long bone (femur), short bone (carpals), irregular (vertebrae), plat bone (cranial bones, sternum) and sesamoid (patella)

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18
Q

What does the axial skeleton contain

A

Skull bones, vertebrae (24), rib cage (12 pairs,1-7 are true, 8-10 are false, 11 and 12 are floating ribs)

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19
Q

What does the appendicular skeleton include

Where do adult read blood cells form primarily

A

Limbs which are primarily long bones contain bone marrow in their shafts

Adults RBC form primarily form bone marrow in irregular bones like the sternum and hip bone

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20
Q

Explain skeletal muscles role in locomotor system (3) and what do they contain (7)

A

Aid movement by attaching to our bones

Contribute to maintenance of homeostasis by generating heat + muscle contraction requires energy thus in cases of extreme shivering produces random skeletal muscle contractions to generate heat

They are striated, voluntary, multinucleated muscles that are arranged in bundles (fascicles)

Each skeletal muscle contains muscle tissue, connective tissue, blood and nervous tissue

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21
Q

Explain features and role of cardiac and smooth muscle

A
  • Smooth muscles
    are involuntary, single nucleus cells with no striations, usually found in blood vessels, digestive tract, bladder and hollow organs.
  • cardiac muscle
    is involuntary, single nucleus cells found only in the wall of the heart whose function is to pump blood.
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22
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23
Q

Where sis the heart located

A

Between the lungs in the mediastinum

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24
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25
Q

what is rhesus factor (RhD +/-)
what are erythrocytes
what are leukocytes

A

an inherited protein found on surface of red blood cells

another term for RBC

white blood cells

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26
Q

what is atherosclerosis

what is myocardial infection

what is heart failure

what is rhesus disease

A

clotting of arteries which leads to hardening and stiffening and promotes hypertension due to reduced vessel lumen

blockage in coronary arteries thus part of the heart muscle becomes ischemic and dies

weakened pump thus failure to adequately circulate blood in body in order to meet its needs

condition where antibodies in a pregnant woman’s blood destroy her baby’s blood cells. Rhesus disease doesn’t harm the mother, but it can cause the baby to become anaemic and develop jaundice.

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27
Q

in secretion process in stomach when gastric juice mixes with ingested food what does it make

what is the hepatic portal veins role in digestion

A

a paste= chyme

divert nutrient rich blood from small intestine to liver, allowing liver to process and store these nutrients into macromolecules such as glucose and glycogen, storage of vitamin D

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28
Q

explain absorption in the digestive system

A
  1. digested nutrients and fluid pass from lumen wall into blood or lymth
  2. chyme, enzymes (from pancreas, liver, gallbladder) forst enter duodenum
  3. most digestion and absorption occurs in jejunum
  4. some nutrients ie vitamin B12 are absorbed in ilium
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29
Q

what is vitamin B12
what is vitamin K
what is peristalsis
what is heartburn
what is irritable bowel syndrome
what is lactose intolerant
what is celiac disease
what are ulcers
what is CF

A

Vitamin B12 - A water-soluble vitamin involved in the metabolism of every cell of the human body.

Vitamin K- A group of fat-soluble vitamins that play a role in blood clotting, bone metabolism, and regulating blood calcium levels.

Peristalsis- series of muscle contractions that move food through the digestive tract.

Heartburn- painful, burning sensation that occurs in the chest or throat when stomach acid backs up into the esophagus.

Irritable bowel syndrome- chronic condition that affects the large intestine.

Lactose intolerance - An impaired ability to digest lactose, a sugar found in milk and other dairy products
Usually occurs due to deficiency of lactase.

Celiac disease- A chronic digestive and immune disorder triggered by eating foods containing gluten such as bread. It results in the damage of the small intestine.

Ulcer - Damage to the epithelium or mucous membrane of a internal organ.

Cystic fibrosis- An inherited disorder that affects the cells that produce mucus, sweat and digestive
juices resulting in severe damage to the lungs, digestive system and other organs in the body

30
Q

in secretion process in stomach when gastric juice mixes with ingested food what does it make

A

a paste= chyme

31
Q

what are the functions of the kidney (5)

A
  • remove metabolic wastes form body and regulate fluid balance in body
  • produces hormone known as erythropoietin which stimulates erythropoiesis
  • provides last step in synthesis vitamin D
  • produces an enzyme called renin which plays role in maintaining blood pressure
  • plays key role in maintaining acid-base balance in body
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34
Q

explain the formation of urine

A
  1. filtration- blood pressure drives this process, afferent arterioles introduce blood into bowman capsule allowing water and solutes through and keeps blood cells, platelets and proteins in blood
  2. tubular reabsorption- useful filtered substances return to peritubular capillaries then to blood stream=most reabsorption occurs here
  3. tubular secretion- removes unwanted substances + maintaining acid-base balance
35
Q

what happens if blood volume drops during excretory system in the kidney

A

with regards to blood pressure, reduced blood volume introduced into kidney by afferent arteriole instigates release of renin which converts angiotensin l to angiotensin ll stimulating secretion of aldosterone=induces Na and H2O reabsorption at distal tubules and collecting duct

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38
Q

what are the four parts of respiration

A

ventilation, perfusion, diffusion and regulation

39
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40
Q

Explain the menstrual cycle and the 3 phases

A

The menstrual cycle starts at menarche (first menstruation) and ends at menopause (lack
of menstruation in older women) and averagely lasts about 28 days.

There are 3 phases

of the menstrual cycle namely:
- Menstrual phase: first phase of the cycle when the endometrium sheds

  • Proliferative phase: thickening of the endometrium, end of this phase aligns with ovulation (release of oocyte from the ovaries).
  • Progestational phase: the final phase that occurs before pregnancy which creates. corpus luteum an endocrine structure that releases estrogen and progesterone that
    prepares the endometrium for pregnancy.
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43
Q

Where do testes go before birth

A

Testes descend into skin pouch below pelvic girdle known as scrotum

44
Q

Explain the process of sperm formation, maturation and transport (7)

A
  1. Seminiferous tubules are structures within the testes that contain cells called spermatogonia which are the starting point of spermatogenesis.
  2. Spermatogenesis requires several rounds of cell division, processes known as mitosis and meiosis.
  3. Spermatogonium develops into primary spermatocytes and then secondary spermatocytes after meiosis, after the 2nd round of meiosis spermatids form and
    develop into spermatozoa (sperm).
  4. Sertoli cells also line the seminiferous tubules, and they provide nourishment for the
    developing sperm cells. Leydig cells also found in the seminiferous tubules produce testosterone.
  5. A few hormones (testosterone, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone) are involved in the male sexual function. Testosterone oversees the growth, development and maturation of the male sexual organs and characteristics.
  6. Sperm exits the testes and enters the epididymis where it undergoes maturation and is kept for storage, via the vas deferens sperm is transported through the ejaculatory
    ducts into the urethra (see fig 2).
  7. As sperm travels through the urethra, secretions from several glands (seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands) results in semen, a thick fluid that contains sperm. The secretions from these glands include fructose, prostaglandins, alkaline buffer, mucus, etc.
45
Q

Explain the process of fertilisation (5)

A
  1. union between the egg and sperm cell nucleus= produces a zygote which is the initial cell of a foetus/baby.
  2. Capacitation occurs as the sperm swims through uterus into the oviduct-> only a capacitated sperm cell can partake in fertilization.
  3. Capacitation is the process wherebymembrane over the sperm’s acrosome is weakened due to chemical changes; enzymes are released from the capacitated sperm which then clears a path through the zona pellucida of the egg cell.
  4. Only one sperm cell fuses with the oocyte, once this happens, rapid chemical changes take place across the cell membrane of the oocyte preventing more sperm entry.
  5. Fusion with sperm allows maturation of oocyte into an ovum and a polar body. The formed zygote has 46 chromosomes, 23 from each parent.
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49
Q

What is the difference between endocrine system and exocrine glands(sweat, salivary glands etc)

A

Exocrine glands secrete externally and internally via ducks endocrine gland secrete hormones internally using bloodstream

50
Q

What are the 2 types of hormone classes

A

Steroid (oestrogen, progesterone, testosterone)
Non steroid (insulin, adrenaline etc)

51
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A
52
Q

Atrial natriuretic peptide

A

Kidney, blood, vessels
Increase Na excretion and lowers blood pressure

53
Q

Define diabetes
Define gigantism
Define rickets
Define pituitary dwarfism

A

Diabetes - a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level over a prolonged period of time.
Gigantism - occurs when the pituitary gland makes too much growth hormone
resulting in notable changes in terms of height and girth.
Rickets - the softening and weakening of bones in children, usually because of an
extreme and prolonged vitamin D deficiency.
Pituitary dwarfism - also known as growth hormone deficiency, is a condition in
which the pituitary gland does not make enough growth hormone resulting in a
child’s slow growth pattern and an unusually small stature.

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56
Q

describe the spinal cord
in the brain what are the myelin sheath made of and what is it made of in the rest of the body

A

extends from the foramen magnum and terminates at conus medullaris
oligodendrocyte, schwann cells

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61
Q

what is visual pigments made out of

A

proteins that change shape when absorbing light
consist of different variants of opsin in combination with light absorbing substance derived from vitamin A

62
Q

how is visual information transported (3)

A
  • signals flow from rods and cones to bipolar cells then to ganglion cells
  • signals also travel to horizontal and amacrine cells where its weakened or strengthened
  • the 2 optic nerves of the brain are formed by axons of ganglion cells
63
Q

what is the axons of optic nerve ends in an island of grey matter called

A

lateral geniculate nucleus

64
Q

Explain the process of how we hear from the ear (5)

A
  1. Sounds are waves of compressed air. The sense of hearing begins with vibration- sensitive mechanoreceptors which lie deep in the ear.
  2. As sounds travel the auditory canal it induces vibrations on the tympanic membrane (ear drum), which in turn causes vibration of the tiny bones (ossicles). The names of the ossicle bones are malleus
    (hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes. 3. The vibration of these bones transmits their motion to the oval window found at the entrance of the cochlea.
  3. Vibration of the oval window
    causes pressure waves in the fluid of the cochlea and transmitted to the hair cells which are the sensory receptors of sound.
  4. Stimulated hair cells release neurotransmitters that induce action potentials in the neurons of the auditory nerve and these signals are carried to the brain.
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68
Q

Explain how we taste using the tongue (4)

A
  1. Gustation is the scientific term for taste: taste is a chemical sense which requires chemoreceptors which are located on the
    tongue.
  2. These receptors receive sensory
    information which travels to the thalamus and eventually to the cerebral cortex where Perceptions are made from the stimulus. The different perceptions of taste are bitter, sweet, sour, salty and umami. 3. The limbic system is also integrated in the sense of taste which incorporates emotions and
    memories. The tongue has about 10, 000 taste
    buds.
  3. The sense of taste is also linked with the sense of smell, as we chew food, Odour molecules travel up the nasal passage. Thus anything that affects the nasal passage and dampens the sense of smell (i.e. cold or flu) tends to diminish the taste of the food as well.
69
Q

How do we smell through our nose (3)

A
  1. The receptors situated in the nose
    detect water soluble, aromatic and vaporised substances.
  2. On the nose olfactory epithelium are olfactory neurons which hold the
    receptors that odour molecules bind unto. This usually results in a nerve impulse which travels to the olfactory bulbs in the frontal area
    of the brain.
    3.Other neurons send messages to the cerebral cortex which interprets
    the exact smell i.e. fresh bread
    citrus etc.
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Plovdiv And Sofia Exam (2 decks)

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