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biology. unit 3 > human and animal physiology > Flashcards

human and animal physiology Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the two methods that food can be digested

A

mechanical digestion and chemical digestion

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2
Q

mechanical digestion

A

chewing (mouth)

churning (stomach)

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3
Q

movement of food

A

peristalsis

segmentation

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4
Q

chemical digestion

A

stomach acids
bile
enzymes

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5
Q

where do macromolecules begin to digest

A

carbohydrates in the mouth
proteins in the stomach
lipids in the intestines
nucleic acids, the pancreas release nucleases to digest them

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6
Q

structure of small intestine

A

serosa
muscle layer
submucosa
mucosa

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7
Q

structure of villi

A 
microvilli
proteins
single epithelial layer
intestinal gland
rich blood supply
lacteals
smooth muscle 
serosa
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8
Q

structure features of villi epithelium

A

tight junctions
micro villi
mitochondria
Pinocytotic Vesicles

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9
Q

membrane transport mechanisms

A

simple diffusion
facilitated diffusion
osmosis
active transport

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10
Q

endocytosis

A

involves the invagination of the plasma membrane to create an internal vesicle containing extracellular material, energy dependent process

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11
Q

where is starch digestion initiated

A

initiated in the salivary glands in the mouth and continued in pancreatic amylase in the intestines.

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12
Q

role of the pancreas in the breakdown of starch

A

It produces the enzyme amylase which is released from exocrine glands (acinar cells) into the intestinal tract
It produces the hormones insulin and glucagon which are released from endocrine glands (islets of Langerhans) into the blood

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13
Q

how do hormones such as insulin and glucagon regulate the concentration of glucose?

A

insulin lowers blood glucose levels by increasing glycogen synthesis and storage in the liver and adipose tissues
Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by limiting the synthesis and storage of glycogen by the liver and adipose tissues

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14
Q

what is the core function of the digestive system?

A

to break down large molecules into smaller subunits that can be absorbed by cells

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15
Q

arteries and veins:

A

arteries pump blood from the heart

veins pump blood back to the heart

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16
Q

The reason why there are two sets of atria and ventricles is because there are two distinct locations for blood transport

A

the left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood around body
the right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs (pulmonary circulation)

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17
Q

why does the left side of the hear have a thicker muscular pump?

A

because it needs much more blood to pump to the rest of the body, therefore, needs higher pressure.

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18
Q

what is the function of arteries?

A

to pump high blood pressure to the body tissues and organs and lungs.

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19
Q

structure of arteries

A

narrow lumen
a thick wall containing an outer layer of collagen to prevent the artery from rupturing under the high pressure
contains an inner layer of muscle and elastic fibres to help maintain pulse flow (it can contract and stretch)

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20
Q

function of muscle fibre in arteries

A

help to form a rigid arterial wall that is capable of withstanding the high blood pressure without rupturing

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21
Q

function of elastic fibre in arteries

A

allow the arterial wall to stretch and expand upon the flow of a pulse through the lumen

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22
Q

what is the function of capillaries

A

is to exchange materials between the cells in tissues and blood travelling at low pressure

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23
Q

structure of capillaries

A

They have a very small diameter (~ 5 µm wide) which allows passage of only a single red blood cell at a time (optimal exchange)
The capillary wall is made of a single layer of cells to minimise the diffusion distance for permeable materials
They are surrounded by a basement membrane which is permeable to necessary materials
They may contain pores to further aid in the transport of materials between tissue fluid and blood

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24
Q

veins function

A

is to collect the blood from the tissues and convey it at low pressure to the atria of the heart

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25
Q

veins structure

A

They have a very wide lumen (relative to wall thickness) to maximise blood flow for more effective return
They have a thin wall containing less muscle and elastic fibres as blood is flowing at a very low pressure (~ 5 – 10 mmHg)
veins possess valves to prevent backflow and stop the blood from pooling at the lowest extremities

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26
Q

sinotrial node SAN

A

primary pacemaker- controlling the rate at which the heart beats

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27
Q

function of SAN

A

sends out an electrical signal that stimulates contraction as it is propagated through the walls of the atria and then the walls of the ventricles

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28
Q

function of the atrioventricular node AVN

A

sends signals down the septum via a nerve bundle (Bundle of His)
The Bundle of His innervates nerve fibres (Purkinje fibres) in the ventricular wall, causing ventricular contraction

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29
Q

nerves connected to the medulla that affect the heart rate:

A

The sympathetic nerve releases the neurotransmitter noradrenaline (a.k.a. norepinephrine) to increase heart rate
The parasympathetic nerve (vagus nerve) releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine to decrease heart rate

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30
Q

what is the function of the hormone adrenaline and where is released from

A

Adrenaline increases heart rate by activating the same chemical pathways as the neurotransmitter noradrenaline and it is released from the adrenal glands.

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31
Q

diastole

A

atria and ventricles relaxed
blood flows into heart from veins
AV valves opened
SL valves closed

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32
Q

atrial systole

A 
atria contracts
ventricles relaxed
blood push into atria
AV valves open
SL valves closed
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33
Q

ventricular systole

A 
atria relaxed
ventricles contracts
blood pushed into arteries
AV valves closed
SL valves open
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34
Q

coronary arteries

A

the blood vessels that surround the heart and nourish the cardiac tissue to keep the heart working

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35
Q

Atherosclerosis (coronary occlusion)

A

is the hardening and narrowing of the arteries due to the deposition of cholesterol

36
Q

consequences of coronary occlusion

A

Atherosclerosis can lead to blood clots which cause coronary heart disease when they occur in coronary arteries

37
Q

Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease

A 
advancing age
sex- male increased in ostrogen level 
smoking
obesity
genetics
diseases
diet 
exercise
38
Q

first line of defense

A

skin

mucous membrane

39
Q

clotting (homeostasis)

A

is the mechanism by which broken blood vessels are repaired when damaged

40
Q

There are two key components of a blood clot :

A

platelets and insoluble fibrin strands

41
Q

function of platelets

A

Platelets undergo a structural change when activated to form a sticky plug at the damaged region

42
Q

function of insoluble fibrin strands

A

Fibrin strands form an insoluble mesh of fibres that trap blood cells at the site of damage

43
Q

Coronary thrombosis

A

the formation of a clot within the blood vessels that supply and sustain the heart tissue

44
Q

second line of defense

A

phagocytes

45
Q

what are phagocytes

A

the process by which solid materials (such as pathogens) are ingested by a cell

46
Q

third line of defense

A

lymphocytes

47
Q

what are b-lymphocytes

A

are antibody-producing cells that recognise and target a particular pathogen fragment (antigen)

48
Q

Helper T lymphocytes (TH cells)

A

are regulator cells that release chemicals (cytokines) to activate specific B lymphocytes

49
Q

antibiotics

A

compounds that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria

50
Q

An example of an antibiotic resistant strain of bacteria

A

golden staph

51
Q

human immune deficiency

A

is a retrovirus that infects helper T cells, disabling the body’s adaptive immune system

52
Q

The processes involved in physiological respiration are

A

Ventilation: The exchange of air between the atmosphere and the lungs – achieved by the physical act of breathing
Gas Exchange: The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and bloodstream (via passive diffusion)
Cell Respiration: The release of energy (ATP) from organic molecules – it is enhanced by the presence of oxygen (aerobic)

53
Q

purpose of ventilation

A

a ventilation system is needed to maintain a concentration gradient in alveoli

54
Q

structure of alveolus

A

– They have a very thin epithelial layer (one cell thick) to minimise diffusion distances for respiratory gases

– They are surrounded by a rich capillary network to increase the capacity for gas exchange with the blood

– They are roughly spherical in shape, in order to maximise the available surface area for gas exchange

– Their internal surface is covered with a layer of fluid, as
dissolved gases are better able to diffuse into the bloodstream

55
Q

inhalation

A

Diaphragm muscles contract, causing the diaphragm to flatten and increase the volume of the thoracic cavity
External intercostals contract, pulling ribs upwards and outwards (expanding chest)
Additional muscle groups may help pull the ribs up and out (e.g. sternocleidomastoid and pectoralis minor)

56
Q

exhalation

A

Diaphragm muscles relax, causing the diaphragm to curve upwards and reduce the volume of the thoracic cavity
Internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs inwards and downwards (reducing breadth of chest)
Abdominal muscles contract and push the diaphragm upwards during forced exhalation
Additional muscle groups may help pull the ribs downwards (e.g. quadratas lumborum)

57
Q

emphysema

A

is a lung condition whereby the walls of the alveoli lose their elasticity due to damage to the alveolar walls

58
Q

how does excessive affect ventilation

A

Increase ventilation rate (a greater frequency of breaths allows for a more continuous exchange of gases)
Increase tidal volume (increasing the volume of air taken in and out per breath allows for more air in the lungs to be exchanged)

59
Q

what are neurons

A

specialised cells that function to transmit electrical impulses within the nervous system

60
Q

three basic components of neurons

A

dendrite
axon
cell body (soma)

61
Q

what is the myelin sheath

A

the myelin sheath surrounds the axon to improve the conduction speed of electrical impulses along the axon, but require additional space and energy

62
Q

what is resting potential

A

the difference in charge across the membrane when a neuron is not firing

63
Q

when in resting potential?

A

the inside of the neuron is more negative relative to the outside

64
Q

what is action potential?

A

are the rapid changes in charge across the membrane that occur when a neuron is firing

65
Q

what are the three stages of action potential

A

depolarization, repolarization and a refractory period

66
Q

depolarization

A

refers to a sudden change in membrane potential – usually from a (relatively) negative to positive internal charge

67
Q

repolarization

A

efers to the restoration of a membrane potential following depolarisation (i.e. restoring a negative internal charge

68
Q

refractory period

A

refers to the period of time following a nerve impulse before the neuron is able to fire again

69
Q

nerve impulses

A

are action potentials that move along the length of an axon as a wave of depolarisation

70
Q

synapses

A

physical gaps that separate neurons from each other

71
Q

neurotransmitters

A

chemical messengers released from neurons and function to transmit signals across the synaptic cleft

72
Q

diabetes

A

is a metabolic disorder that results from a high blood glucose concentration over a prolonged period

73
Q

type 1 diabetes

A

does not produce insulin
since a kid
caused by the destruction of B-cells

74
Q

type 2 diabetes

A

does not respond to insulin production
caused by the down regulation of insulin receptors
acquired through age

75
Q

thyroxin

A

secreted by the thyroxin gland, increase metabolic rate

increases heat production

76
Q

melatonin

A

produced by the pineal gland, allows you to sleep in which it synchronizes the cardiac rhythms including sleep timing and blood pressure regulation

77
Q

leptin

A

produced by adipose cells, causes appetite inhibition and hence reduced food intake.

78
Q

men reproductive hormone

A

testosterone

79
Q

female reproductive hormone

A

estrogen and progesterone

80
Q

menstrual hormones

A

anterior pituitaries and ovary

81
Q

anterior pituitarias

A

FSH - stimulates follicular growth stimulates estrogen secretion
LH - causes ovulation

82
Q

Ovaries

A

estrogen - thickens uterine lining, inhibits FSH and LH

progesterone- thickens uterine lining, inhibits FSH and LH

83
Q

key events in menstruation cycle

A
  1. follicular phase
  2. ovulation
  3. luteal phase
  4. menstruation
84
Q

ligaments

A

bone to bone

85
Q

tendons

A

bone to muscle

86
Q

synovial joints

A 
ball and socket
pivot
saddle
hinge
plane
condyloid

biology. unit 3 (3 decks)

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