Human Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards
What are the main functions of the respiratory system?
Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange and maintaining the pH of blood.
The larynx is also called the ____.
Voice box
What 3 things happen to air by the mucus and hair in the nasal cavity?
It is warmed, humidified, and filtered.
What 2 main tubes lead from the trachea to the lungs?
The bronchi
What area is the junction to where food goes down the esophagus and air goes down the larynx?
The pharynx
What prevents food from entering in the trachea?
The epiglottis
The ____ are smaller tubes that branch off of the bronchi and lead to the ____.
Bronchioles, alveoli.
Where does gas exchange primarily take place?
In the alveolus
What is the alveoli?
Lots of tiny air sacs of the lungs.
How many sections is the right lung divided into?
3
How many sections is the left lung divided into?
2
When you inhale, what happens to your diaphragm? What happens to the volume and pressure in the thoracic cavity.
The diaphragm contracts and moves downward. This increases the volume in the thoracic cavity and decreases the pressure.
When you exhale, what happens to your diaphragm? What happens to the volume and pressure in the thoracic cavity?
The diaphragm relaxes and moves upward. This decreases the volume in the thoracic cavity and increases the pressure.
What is ventilation? What is it also known as?
It is the process of moving air into and out of the lungs. Also known as breathing.
What is the conducting zone of the respiratory system?
It transports air from the outside environment to the site of the gas exchange.
What is the conducting zone commonly referred as? Why?
Anatomical dead space since no gas exchange occurs in this area.
What parts of the respiratory system are in the conducting zone?
Nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchus, and bronchioles
What is the respiratory zone of the respiratory system?
Structures in the lungs where gas exchange takes place.
What parts of the respiratory system are in the respiratory zone?
Respiratory bronchioles and the alveoli
Which muscles aid in breathing?
Intercostal muscles, diaphragm, and abdominal muscles.
Substances that increase the concentration of hydrogen ions are ____.
Acids
Substances with decreased concentrations of hydrogen ions are ____.
Basic
Carbon dioxide is an ____ gas.
Acidic
What is inspiration?
Air drawn into the lungs.
What is expiration?
Air pushed out from the lungs.
During inspiration, ____ muscles and ____ muscles contract.
Diaphragm, external intercostal
During expiration, ____ muscles and ____ muscles relax.
Diaphragm, external intercostal
What is perfusion?
Delivering blood to the body’s tissues, organs, and cells.
What is hyperventilation?
Fast breathing
What is hypoventilation?
Slow breathing
What is an increase in carbon dioxide called? What about decrease?
Hypercapnia. Hypocapnia
What is an increase in oxygen called? What about decrease?
Hyperoxia. Hypoxia
What is blood composed of?
Plasma, RBCs, cells and platelets.
How many chambers does the heart does?
4
What organ pumps blood throughout the body?
The heart
What are the 4 chambers of the heart?
The left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, and right ventricle.
Atria have ____ walls and ventricles have ____ walls.
Thin, thick
What is the septum of the heart?
It’s the wall that separates the left and right chambers.
What does the interatrial septum consist of?
Fossa ovalis and the limbus of the fossa ovalis
What does the interatrial septum separate?
The left and right atria
What does the interventricular septum consist of?
A membranous and muscular portion.
What does the interventricular septum separate?
The right and left ventricles
What is the function of the septum of the heart?
It separates oxygen-rich blood from oxygens poor blood between the chambers.
What carries blood throughout the body?
Blood vessels
What are the 3 main types of blood vessels?
Arteries, veins, and capillaries.
What blood vessels carry oxygenated blood?
Arteries
What blood vessels carry deoxygenated blood?
Veins
Arteries carry blood ____ from the heart.
Away
Veins carry blood ____ to the heart.
Back
What do capillaries connect?
They connect arteries and veins.
What does blood transport?
Oxygen, nutrients to cells, carbon dioxide and waste away from the cells.
Where does the exchange of nutrients to the cells and wastes from the cells occur?
In the capillaries
What prevents blood from flowing backwards in the heart?
Heart valves
What vena cava collects blood from the lower half of the body?
Inferior vena cava
What vena cava collects blood from the upper half of the body?
Superior vena cava
What arteries delivers nutrients and oxygen to the heart?
Coronary arteries
What are the 2 cycles of contractions of the cardiac cycle called?
Systole and diastole
What is systole?
Contraction of the heart
During systole, where is blood flowing?
Blood is being pumped out of the heart and into the arteries.
Systole makes what sound of the heartbeat?
“lubb” sound
What causes the “lubb” sound of the heartbeat?
The mitral valve and tricuspid valve closing.
What is diastole?
Relaxation of the heart.
During diastole, where is blood flowing?
Into the heart and filling the chamber.
Diastole makes what sound of the heartbeat?
“Dub” sound
What causes the “dub” sound?
The closing of the aortic valve and pulmonary valve.
What is another name for the aortic and pulmonary valves?
Semilunar valves
What are the 5 parts of the heart’s electrical system?
o Sinoatrial node
o Atrioventricular node
o Bundle of His
o Left and right bundle branch
o Purkinje fibers
What is the primary pacemaker of the heart?
The sinoatrial node.
The sinoatrial node beats ____ to ____ bmp.
60 to 100
Where is the sinoatrial node located?
In the upper right atrium
If the sinoatrial node were to give up, what would be the next pacemaker of the heart?
The atrioventricular node
What is the secondary pacemaker of the heart?
Atrioventricular node
Where is the atrioventricular node located?
In the wall of the posteroinferior region of the interatrial septum.
The atrioventricular node beats ____ to ____ bmp.
40 to 60
If the sinoatrial node and atrioventricular node were to give up, what is the last-ditch pacemaker of the heart?
The Purkinje fibers
Where are the Purkinje fibers located?
Along the ventricular walls
The Purkinje fibers beat at ____ to ____ bmp.
20 to 40
The bundle of His branches off into the ____ and the _____.
Right bundle branch, left bundle branch
What are the 3 parts of an ECG ____?
P wave, QRS complex, and T wave.
Depolarization = ____
Contraction
Repolarization = ____
Relaxation
What is the P wave of an ECG?
Atrial contraction/atrial depolarization
What is the QRS complex of an ECG?
Ventricular contraction/ventricular depolarization
What is the T wave of an ECG?
Ventricular relaxation/ventricular repolarization.
What is the flat, straight line on an ECG called?
The isoelectric line
How does blood flow through the cardiovascular system?
o Deoxygenated blood > veins > right atrium > right ventricle > lungs
o Oxygenated blood > lungs > left atrium > left ventricle > aorta > body
What are the functions of the cardiovascular system?
o Delivers oxygen and nutrients to the cells of the body and removes carbon dioxide and waste.
o Maintains body’s blood pressure.
o Regulates body temperature.
o Maintaining the body’s pH.
o Transports hormones
o Fights infections
o Aids in digestion
o Assists in repairing damaged tissues
What is blood pressure?
The force of the blood against the wall of the arteries.
What do blood vessels do when the body temperature rises?
The blood vessels dilate (widen) to allow the heat to escape. Sweat is produced to cool the body off.
What do blood vessels do when the body temperature drop?
The blood vessels constrict (narrow) which prevents heat from escaping the body.
What within the blood maintains the body’s pH?
A bicarbonate buffer system
How does the bicarbonate buffer system maintain the body’s pH?
It maintains acid by removing excess hydrogen ions from the blood.
What is the GI tract?
A long continuous tube that starts with the mouth and ends with the anus.
What is mechanical digestion?
Chewing; the physical breakdown of food.
What is chemical digestion?
Enzymes break down nutrients into smaller molecules.
____ and ____ lubricate the food and enzymes with things like ____ and ____. This initiates the ____ digestion of ____ and ____.
Mucus, saliva, amylase, lipase. Chemical, lipids and starches.
What is peristalsis?
The involuntary contraction of muscles, creating wave like movements to push contents down the canal.
What is chyme?
Pulpy acidic fluid which passes from the stomach into the small intestine.
What is the chief digestive enzyme in the stomach that breaks down proteins into polypeptides?
Pepsin
What separates the esophagus from the stomach?
The lower esophageal sphincter
What separates the stomach from the small intestine?
The pyloric sphincter
What is digestion?
The process of breaking down food by mechanical and chemical processes.
Where is the main site of digestion and absorption?
The small intestine
What is the small intestine composed of?
The jejunum, duodenum, and ilium.
What is the function of the duodenum?
o Chemical digestion of chyme
o Breaks down fats, proteins, and carbohydrates
o Absorbs iron and other minerals.
What is the function of jejunum?
Absorption of nutrients (carbohydrates and proteins are absorbed into the bloodstream).
What is the function of the ileum?
Absorption of nutrients (vitamin B12, bile salts, and products of digestion are absorbed).
What are tiny hair-like projections that line the intestines and help with absorption in the bloodstream called?
Villi
The small intestine is ____ and has a series of ____ that increases the surface are for ____.
Coiled, foldings, absorption.
What is the large intestine composed of?
The cecum, colon, and rectum.
What are the 3 parts of the colon of the large intestine?
Ascending colon, transverse colon, and descending colon.
What does the large intestine absorb?
Water, electrolytes, and vitamins produced by the enteric bacteria
What are the accessory organs of the digestive system?
Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
What are the enzymes and hormones of the digestive system?
Gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, insulin, glucagon, and bile.
Where is the hormone gastrin produced and what does it do?
Produced in the stomach and it stimulates stomach acid.
Where is the hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) produced and what does it do?
Produced in the small intestine and stimulates the release of enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver.
Where is the hormone secretin produced and what does it do?
Produced in the small intestine and stimulates the production of bicarbonate by the pancreas.
Where is the hormone insulin produced and what does it do?
Produced in the pancreas and regulates blood sugar levels.
Where is the hormone glucagon produced and what does it do?
Produced in the pancreas and helps to release glucose from the liver.
Where is bile produced, where is it stored, and what does it do?
Produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. It helps break down fat in the small intestine.
What 2 parts is the nervous system divided into?
The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
What is the central nervous system composed of?
The brain and the spinal cord.
What is the function of the central nervous system?
This is the central command center where all communication and actions occur in the body.
What is the peripheral nervous system composed of?
The nerves that branch off from the spinal cord and innervate the body.
What is the function of the peripheral nervous system?
It sends the signals by the brain to targeted locations.
What are the 3 parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, and axon.
What does the cell body of a neuron contain?
The nucleus and organelles.
What are the dendrites of a neuron?
Short, branch-like extensions that generate electrical impulses.
What is the function of an axon of a neuron?
It transmits signals to other neurons.
At the end of the axon is the ____ that release ____ called the ____.
Terminal buttons, neurotransmitters, axon terminal.
What is the myelin sheath? What is its function?
The white fatty substance that covers the axon. It helps the axon increase its speed of nerve impulses.
What are synapses? This is where cells _____ with each other.
The space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron. Communicate
What cells in the nervous system hold nerve cells in place?
Glial cells
What are the 2 types of neurons?
Sensory (afferent) neurons and motor (efferent) neurons.
What is the function of sensory neurons?
They send messages to the central nervous system.
What is the function of motor neurons?
They send messages to the muscles.
The peripheral nervous system is divided into what 2 systems?
The autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system.
What is the autonomic nervous system?
Involuntary actions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration.
What is the somatic nervous system?
Voluntary actions such as movement of the limbs.
The autonomic nervous system is divided into what?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic.
The sympathetic NS is referred to as the ____ system.
Fight or flight
The parasympathetic NS is referred to as the ____ system.
Rest and digest
What are the 3 types of muscle tissues?
Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
What is the only voluntary tissue in the body?
Skeletal muscle
What is skeletal muscle located and what is it responsible for?
It’s attached to bones and responsible for movement.
Skeletal muscles have ____ and ____ nuclei per fiber.
Striations, multiple
Where are skeletal muscles found?
Tongue, diaphragm, and upper esophagus.
Where is cardiac muscle found and what does it do?
Found in the heart and pumps blood throughout the body.
Cardiac muscles have ____, ____ nucleus per fiber, and ____.
Striations, one, intercalated discs.
Where is smooth muscle found?
Found in organ and vessel walls such as stomach, intestines, arteries and veins, bladder, and eyes.
Each smooth muscle fiber has a ____ shape and ____ nucleus per fiber.
Spindle, 1
What muscle tissues are striated, and which are not striated?
Skeletal and cardiac muscle are striated. Smooth muscle is not striated.
What are the weakest muscle tissues?
Smooth muscle
What is the function of muscle tissue?
Responsible for movement of the body.
What is the path of a nerve signal to the muscle?
Originates in the brain > spinal cord > axon > muscle nerve > muscle fiber.
All muscle fibers exhibit what 4 things?
Extensibility, elasticity. excitability, and contractibility.
What is actin (thin filaments)?
Protein that forms the contractile filaments of muscle cells.
What is myosin (thick filaments)?
Fibrous globulin of muscles that can split ATP and react to actin in muscle contraction.
What is the basic contractile unit of muscle fiber?
Sarcomere
What is the sliding filament model?
The process used by muscles to contract. Muscle contraction occurs when actin slide past myosin within a muscle fiber, causing the sarcomere to shorten and generate muscle force.
Thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments do not shorten, they ____.
Slide
What are the parts of male reproductive system?
Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and penis.
What are gonads?
Testes and ovaries
What are gametes?
Sperm and eggs
Sperm + egg = fertilization which makes a ____.
Zygote
What are the testes and their function?
A pair of oval-shaped organs that produce sperm and testosterone.
What is the epididymis and its function?
A long, coiled tube that stores and transports sperm.
What is the vas deferens and its function?
A long, thin tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the seminal vesicles.
What is the prostate gland and its function?
A small, round organ that produces a fluid that helps to transport the sperm.
What is the penis and its function?
A long, cylindrical organ that carries urine and sperm out of the body.
What are the parts of the female reproductive system?
Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and vulva.
What is oogenesis?
The process of female gamete formation.
What are the ovaries and their function?
A pair of small, oval-shaped organs that produce eggs and hormones.
What are the fallopian tubes and their function?
A pair of long, thin tubes that carry eggs from the ovaries to the uterus.
What is the uterus and its function?
A pear-shaped organ that houses and protects a developing fetus.
What is the vagina and its function?
A long, cylindrical organ that carries blood and mucosal tissue from the uterus during a woman’s period; provides a passageway for intercourse and sperm until it is distributed to the uterus; and also allows passage for vaginal childbirth.
What is the vulva and its function?
The external female genitalia that includes the labia, clitoris, and urethra.
Where is gonadotropin-releasing hormone produced?
In the hypothalamus
What does gonadotropin-releasing hormone do?
Stimulates the release of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from the pituitary gland.
What does the follicle-stimulating hormone do?
It helps to stimulate the growth of eggs in the ovaries and control the menstrual cycle.
What does the luteinizing hormone do?
It helps trigger ovulation, which is the release of an egg from the ovary.
What produces testosterone?
The testes
What does testosterone do?
It helps produce sperm and develop male characteristics.
What produces estrogen?
The ovaries
What does estrogen do?
It helps to develop female characteristics and regulates the menstrual cycle.
What does progesterone do?
Creates healthy uterine lining for menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
What hormone stimulates milk production in mammary glands?
Prolactin (PRL)
What stimulates the formation of ova and sperm?
The follicle-stimulating hormone.
What hormone stimulates ovulation in females and androgen in men?
Luteinizing hormone
What does androgen in men do? What is an example of an androgen?
It develops male sexual reproduction and characteristics. Testosterone.
Where is oxytocin produced? What gland secretes it?
In the hypothalamus. The posterior pituitary.
What causes increased contractions of the uterus during labor and stimulates ejection of milk into the ducts of the breast?
Oxytocin
What does the integumentary system consist of?
Hair, nails, skin, and sweat glands.
What are the 5 layers of the epidermis?
Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale. Pneumonic: Come Let’s Get Sun Burned
What layer of the epidermis contains melanocytes?
Stratum basale
What 4 things can you find in the dermis?
Blood vessels, sweat glands, nerves, and hair follicles.
What 2 layers is the dermis divided into?
The papillary layer and reticular layer.
What layer of the skin connects the skin to bone and muscle?
The hypodermis
What are the functions of the integumentary system?
Protection, excretion, and sensation.
What is the protection function of the integumentary system?
The skin protects the body from harmful substances, UV rays, and excessive water loss by creating a barrier from outside pathogens.
What is excretion function of the integumentary system?
The sweat glands help to regulate body temperature by producing sweat that evaporates and cools the body. Sweat contains trace amounts of lactic acid, urea, and alcohol.
What is the sensation function of the integumentary system?
The skin is packed with nerve endings that allow us to feel touch, pressure, heat, and cold.
What do melanocytes do?
Melanocytes produce melanin that help protect against ultraviolet radiation.
What is the largest organ of the body?
The skin
What are the 3 layers of the skin?
The epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis.
What is the outermost layer of the skin?
The epidermis
What is the function of the epidermis?
It provides a waterproof barrier and protects the body from infection.
What is the middle layer of the skin?
The dermis
What does the dermis contain?
Blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, and sweat glands.
What is the innermost layer of the skin?
The hypodermis also referred to as the subcutaneous.
What does the hypodermis/subcutaneous consist of?
Fat and connective tissue.
What is the main difference between endocrine glands and exocrine glands?
Endocrine glands release hormones into their surroundings; they don’t have any special ducts. Whereas exocrine glands release their substances through a duct or opening of the body.
What are 2 examples of exocrine glands?
Mammary glands and sweat glands
What is the master gland of the endocrine system?
The pituitary gland
What gland produces growth hormone, prolactin, and adrenocorticotropic?
The pituitary gland
What gland produces thyroxine and calcitonin?
The thyroid gland
What does the thyroid gland do?
Helps to regulate metabolism, while calcitonin helps to regulate calcium levels in the blood.
What gland produces the parathyroid hormone?
The parathyroid gland
What does the parathyroid hormone do?
It helps to regulate calcium levels in the blood.
What gland produces thymosin?
The thymus gland
What does thymosin do?
It helps to develop the immune system.
What gland produces epinephrine and norepinephrine?
The adrenal gland
What do epinephrine and norepinephrine do?
They help to regulate the fight-or-flight response.
The pancreas produces insulin and ____, which help to regulate blood sugar levels.
Glucagon
The ovaries produce estrogen and ____, which help to regulate the menstrual cycle.
Progesterone.
What are the 3 types of hormones?
Lipid-based hormones, nonpolar fat-soluble hormones, and water-soluble hormones.
What are lipid-based hormones made out of?
Cholesterol
What are lipid-based hormones? What are 2 examples?
These hormones are insoluble n water and are transported in the blood by carrier proteins. Testosterone and estrogen.
What are nonpolar fat-soluble hormones made of?
Amino acids
What are nonpolar fat-soluble hormones? What is 1 example?
These hormones are insoluble in water and are transported in the blood by carrier proteins. Thyroid hormones
What are water-soluble hormones made of?
Amino acids
What are water-soluble hormones? What is 1 example?
These hormones are soluble in water and are transported in the blood by diffusion.
What does the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) do?
Regulates the body’s water balance by signaling the kidneys to reabsorb more water from urine.
What gland secretes melatonin?
The pineal gland
What gland secretes thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), and calcitonin?
Thyroid gland
What hormone increases blood calcium?
Parathyroid hormone
What is positive feedback mechanism? What is an example?
A process that amplifies the change in a given direction. Childbirth is an example.
What do kidneys do?
Filter blood and produce urine.
What is negative feedback mechanism? What is an example?
A process that reverses the change or slows it down. See-saw effect. The release of insulin in the response to high blood sugar levels is an example.
What is the renal cortex?
The outer layer of the kidney that contains the renal pyramids and blood vessels.
Erythropoietin is stimulated in the production of new ____.
Red blood cells
What is the renal medulla? What does it do?
The inner later of the kidney that help to concentrate urine.
What are the ureters? What do they do?
A pair of tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
What is the bladder? What does it do?
It’s a sac that stores urine until it is ready to be excreted.
What is the urethra? What does it do?
A tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body.
What is the immune system divided into?
The innate defense system and the adaptive defense system.
What is the first line of defense against infections?
The innate defense system
What is the second line of defense of against infections?
The adaptive defense system
What are 4 parts of the innate defense system?
Skin, mucous membrane, enzymes, and stomach acid.
What is one of the first response of the immune system called? What is it?
Inflammatory response. This is when blood vessels dilate, and white blood cells and fluids are sent to the area of infection.
What destroys unknown bacteria?
Phagocytes
What type of white blood cell that remember a specific foreign invader and help the body to respond more quickly if that invader were to enter the body again?
Memory T-cells
What are 3 parts of the adaptive defense system?
Lymphatic system, white blood cells, and antibodies.
What are antigens?
Foreign invaders that the body has been exposed to.
What are antigen-presenting cells?
A type of white blood cell that engulfs the foreign invader and present the antigen on its surface.
What are helper T cells?
A type of white blood cell that helps to active the other cells of the immune system. The helper T cells induce B cells to secrete a large number of antibodies to bind to the antigen.
What are cytotoxic T cells?
A type of white blood cell that destroys infected cells.
What are cytokines?
Chemicals that help to regulate the immune response and active cytotoxic T cells.
What are antibodies?
Proteins that attach to antigens and help to destroy them.
What is passive immunity?
When the body is exposed to antibodies that have been made by another individual, such as when a mother passes antibodies to her child through breast milk.
What is active immunity?
When the body produces its own antibodies in response to an infection.
Which is usually longer lasting, passive immunity or active immunity?
Active immunity
What connects bone to bone?
Joints
What hold the bones together at the joints?
Ligaments
What are the 4 major types of bones?
Long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones.
What part of the body are long bones found?
The arms and legs
What are examples of long bones?
Humerus, femur, ulna radius, tibia, and fibula.
What are the enlarged ends of long bones called?
Epiphysis. (proximal and distal ends)
What is the shaft of the long bone called?
Diaphysis
Where are short bones found?
In the wrists and ankles.
What are examples of short bones?
Bones of the carpals and tarsals.
Short bones are approx. ____ in length and width.
Equal
Where are flat bones found?
In the ribs, sternum, shoulder blades, and hip bones.
Flat bones are ____ and often ____.
Thin, curved
Where are irregular bones found?
In the spine.
What is an example of irregular bones?
The vertebrae
Irregular bones have a variety of ____ and are not ____.
Shapes, symmetrical
What is compact bone?
The hard outer layer of bone that provides protection and support.
Where is compact bone found?
It makes up the shaft of long bones and the flat surfaces of other bones.
What is spongy bone?
A porous, lightweight bone.
Where is spongy bone found?
At the ends of long bones and in the vertebrae.
What is cancellous bone?
A type of spongy bone that contains many small cavities.
What is trabecular bone?
A type of spongy bone that has a honeycomb-like structure.
Bone marrow is found in ____ bone.
Spongy
Red bone marrow contains ____ cells that produce RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.
Hematopoietic
Yellow bone marrow contains ____ cells that produce fat, cartilage, and bone.
Mesenchymal stem
What cells are bone builders?
Osteoblasts
What are the primary cells in bone tissue and are essential in maintaining bone structure?
Osteocytes
What cells break down bone tissue and help with bone remodeling?
Osteoclasts
What are cells that form cartilage? They mature into ____.
Chondroblasts. Chondrocytes
What connects muscles to bones?
Tendons
What ion plays a crucial role in the depolarization phase of an action potential?
Sodium
The hormone insulin is produced by which cell in the pancreas?
Beta cells
The pericardium is a double-layered sac that contains the heart and the roots of the ____.
The great vessels
What part of the brain is primarily responsible for voluntary motor control?
Frontal lobe
The semicircular circles, found in the inner ear, are primarily responsible for what?
Balance and spatial orientation
