Human Anatomy (Chapter 1) Flashcards
Epithelial Tissue
Lines various body cavities
- Also form glands
- Allows body to interact with both internal and external environments
Plasma, what does it carry? (7 things)
- Hormones
- Plasma proteins (Albumin)
- Ions (eg. sodium chloride)
- Gases (O2, N, Co2)
- Wastes
- Nutrients (protein, carbs, lipids)
- Water (90%)
Arteriosclerosis
Hardening of arteries and narrowing due to plaque accumulation
Capillaries
Allow exchange between blood and interstitial fluid between cells.
Arterioles
Small vessels that receive blood from the arteries and go to capillary beds.
Interstitial fluid
Fluid in spaces between cells
The common carotid artery is where? and ends by?
Dividing (bifurcates) into internal and external carotid arteries at about the level of the larynx.
Subclavian artery
Along the clavicular area, leads into arms
Coronary artery
Supplies oxygenated blood to heart muscle, is in the heart.
Brachiocephalic artery
First branch of aortic arch. divides again into right subclavian and right common carotid artery
Axillary artery
Continuation of the right subclavian artery into the axilla, supplies the thoracic, shoulder, and the scapular muscles and the humerus in arm
Axilla
Underarm area, armpit
Femoral artery
The major artery supplying the leg; off of the external iliac artery; splits into anterior and posterior tibial arteries
Deep palmar arch
Deep to carpal bones, derived largely from radial artery
Superficial palmar arch
Gives rise to common digital arteries which become proper palmar digital arteries
Abdominal aorta (3 functions)
- Supplies abdominal organs
- Runs from diaphragm to the pelvic region
- Gives rise to several other artieries
Dural sinuses
Collects venous blood from the brain, empties into jugular vein
Internal jugular vein
Drains blood from the brain
External jugular vein
Smaller and superficial, draws from face
Hepatic portal vein (2 functions)
- Vascular system carries food molecules through this vein to the liver before distributing them throughout the body.
- Collects blood from the GI tract and conducts it to capillaries in the liver
Cephalic vein
Ascends anterior lateral aspect of the arm, courses through the deltopectoral triangle where it joins the axillary vein
Basilic Vein
Arises on the ulnar side of the hand and ascends on the medial side half way up the humerus where it joins the brachial vein, then the axillary vein
Great saphenous vein
Longest vein in body, from the foot along the medial side of the leg up to the proximal thigh, where it empties into the femoral vein.
Medial cubital vein
Diagonally crossing the arm to connect the cephalic and basilic veins at around the elbow joint
Easy access for drawing blood
Dorsal venous arch
Superficial on foot
Cardiac Cycle
The period from the beginning of one heartbeat to the the beginning of the next.
Systemic Circuit
Transports blood between tissues and the heart
Systole
Contraction phase of the cardiac cycle, when the blood gets pushed out of the heart
Diastole
Relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle, when the blood flows back into the heart.
tricuspid valve
three flexible flaps, directs blood flow from Right Atrium to Right Ventricle, prevents backflow to RA when RV contracts
Mitral (bicuspid) valve
Blood flows through the atrioventricular valve to the left ventricle and cannot go back up the left atrium
Aortic Valve
- Located at the beginning of the ascending aorta as it exits the left ventricle
- Open during ventricular contraction
Mediastinum Contains (4 things)
Contains:
- Heart and great vessels
- Esophagus
- Trachea
- Thymus
Four important functions of the lymphatic system:
- Returns ~3L/day of leaked interstitial fluid and proteins to circulating blood
- Filters blood
- Destruction of bacteria and other foreign substances that are present in lymph nodes.
- Prevents accumulation of tissue fluids/filtered proteins by drainage into highly permeable lymphatic capillaries in connective tissue
Peristalsis
Waves of contractions in the GI tract
Cardiac Sphincter
Prevents contents of stomach from moving back up into the esophagus
Pyloric sphincter
Allows chyme to leave the small intestine and enter the duodenum
Order of the intenstines
Duodenum, jejunum, ileum
Duodenum
Chyme is exposed to (1) bile from the gallbladder and (2) enzymes from the pancreas
Segmentation
Similar to peristalsis, pushes chyme and squeezes it momentarily to force it backwards for more absorption.
Properties of villi/microvilli
Each has its own capillary and lymph vessel to take up nutrients
Large intestine
Final absorption of salt and water
What do kidneys eliminate? (2 things)
- Metabolic products: urea, uric acid, creatine
- Excess water/electrolytes
- What is excreted vs reabsorbed is regulated by hormones
How many bones does the human body have?
206
What are the proximal portions of the femur called?
The greater trochanter & t he lesser trochanter
Tibial tuberosity
Roughened protrusion on the anterior surface of the tibia. The site for the attachment of the patellar tendon.
Medial and lateral condyle of femur
- Located at the distal end of the femur
- Rounded prominences
- Articulate with the tibia
Olecranon process of ulna
- Back of elbow
* Attachment of triceps tendon
Deltoid tubercle
Mid-lateral on the proximal humerus for deltoid insertion.
Greater Tubercle of Humerus
- Posterior lateral aspect of bone
- Larger of two bumps
- Attachment for 3/4 of rotator cuff
- S.I.T.
Lateral and medial epicondyle of humerus
Points of attachment for forearm muscles
Ischial tuberosities
Strongest part of hip bone (what you sit on)
Hamstrings attached
Ischium
The inferior dorsal part of the hip bone
Acromion process of scapula
The projection of the scapula that sticks out over the humerus and is under the clavicle articulation to the clavicle.
Spine of scapula
On the dorsal side
Separates the supraspinous (superior) fossa from the infraspinous (inferior) fossa
Part of the origin of the deltoid muscle and insertion of part of the trapezius muscle
Hemopoiesis
Formation of blood cells
Articulations
Joints
Skeleton is a storehouse for these 2 essential minerals:
- Calcium
2. Phosphorous
Bones are not static structures. Why?
They are constantly breaking down to release minerals and other substances, and rebuilding to give body flexible but sturdy support.
Four classifications of bones
- Long
- Short (tarsals)
- Flat (skull)
- Irregular
Compact or Cortical Bone
Dense, strong outer layer of bone, under periosteum (connective tissue layer on outside)
Periosteum
Membrane of connective tissue covering the outer surface of bone, consists of collagenous tissue and an inner layer of elastic fibers.
Is well supplied with blood vessels and nerves, some which enter bone.
Spongy or Trabecular Bone
3 features
- Honeycomb-like inner structure of bone
- Makes up ~25% of the skeleton
- Is found within the ends of long bones, flat bones, vertebrae and pelvis.
Function of cortical bone
Lightweight structure/strength
Tendon attachment sites
2 Functions of Trabecular bone
- Large surface area for mineral exchange
2. Maintains strength and integrity
Diaphysis
Shaft of long bone
Proximal and distal epiphysis
Ends of long bones, contain spongy bone containing red marrow.
Endosteum
The connective tissue lining the internal surfaces of bone around the yellow marrow and medullary cavity.
Epiphyseal line
The layer of compact bone found in adult bones indicating where the now sealed growth plate was
Medullary cavity
Runs the length of the diaphysis and is filled with yellow bone marrow (fat storage)
Red marrow
Essential for hemopoiesis of red blood cells, most white blood cells, and platelets.
Epiphyseal cartilage
“Growth plate,” separates the diaphysis and epiphysis in children and YA, allowing for growth. When growth is finished, this line is replaced by bone, leaving a line.
Remodeling
Renewal of bone (new skeleton every ~10 years)
Is responsive to internal and external signals from specialized bone cells that build or break it down
Why is remodeling vital? (3 reasons)
- Repairs damage
- Allows for removal of calcium and phosphorus when body needs it.
- Prevents the accumulation of too much bone (can become brittle)
Osteoblasts
Build bone
Osteoclasts
Break bone down
Wolff’s Law
Changes in bone structure coincide with changes in bone’s function
Maintaining bone density is an important issue for all adults
Axial Skeleton
- Central skeleton (skull, vertebrae, sternum, ribs)
- 74 bones
- Protects organs of the thorax and CNS
Cervical vertibrae
- Superior portion of vertebrae (neck area)
* C1 - C7
Lumbar curve
- Lower back
- L1 - L5
- Main area of back problems (only held up by muscle
Thoracic curve
- Each attached to a rib
* T1 - T12
Sacrum
- Five fused vertebrae (fuse between ages of 18-30)
- Forms posterior wall of pelvic girdle
- Used to determine pelvic size
Coccyx
- 3-5 fused vertebrae (fuse by age 26)
* Tailbone
Appendicular skeleton
- Bones of the upper and lower limbs, pectoral ( shoulder, with clavicle) and pelvic (hip) girdles.
- Pelvic and pectoral girdles are means to articulate with the axial skeleton
Os Coxae
Pelvic girdle: Acetabulum (where femur sits), i lium (iliac crest), ischium (sit bones), and pubis
Pubic symphysis (3 things)
- Strong joint made of cartilage that connects the right and left public bones
- Synovial joint; Allows slight movement between the two sides.
- Helps to absorb forces
The femur articulates inferiorly with the tibia
The femur joins with the tibia on its distal end
Three main types of joints
- Fibrous
- Cartilaginous
- Synovial
Fibrous joint (3 features)
- Synarthroidal classification (syn = together, arthro = joint)
- Tight fibrous connective tissue
- Allow little to no movement
- Skull, between distal ends of tibia and fibula
Cartilaginous joint(2 features)
- Bones connected by cartilage
* Little to no movement allowed
Symphysis
- Fibrocartilaginous pad or disk that separates two bones
* Eg. junctions between vertebrae
Synovial joint
- Classified as diarthroses (“through joint”)
- Freely movable
- Cushioned with cartilage, held together by ligaments
- Articular cartilage
- Articular capsule
- Synovial membrane
- Synovial fluid
- Ligaments
Five characteristic traits of a synovial joint
Hyaline cartilage
- Covers the end surfaces of long bones
* Greek word hyalos meaning glass
Articular capsule (3 things)
- Encloses the joint with a double-layered membrane
- Contains dense fibrous membrane: forms ligaments to strengthen the joint.
- Synovial membranes: Well-supplied with capillaries and produces thick synovial fluid.
Synovial fluid (2 features)
- Nourishes the cartilages
* Lubricates the joint surfaces.
Articular disk (5 features
- Made of fibrocartilage
- Eg. Menisci in knee
- Absorbs shock in knee
- Increases stability
- Directs synovial fluid
- Increases joint contact surface area
Axis of rotation
- Allows joint to move in various planes
* The plane of movement is generally perpendicular to the axis.
Mediolateral movement
- Horizontal joint movement
* Axis passes horizontally from side to side
Anteroposterior
- Sagittal plane movement
* From the front to the back Abduction and adduction (like in shoulder)
Longitudinal joint axis
- Eversion/inversion
* Pronation/supination
Uniplanar or Uniaxial Joints (2 + examples)
- “Hinge joints”
- Joints that only move in one plane only.
- Have 1 axis of rotation.
- Eg. Ankles and elbows
Biplanar or Biaxial Joints (1 + examples)
- Allows movement in two planes, perpendicular to one another
- Eg. foot, knee, hand, wrist
- Finger can move anteriorly and posteriorly, as well as laterally and medially
Multiplanar or Triaxial Joints (2 + example)
- Move around three axes
- (Rotation being the third)
- Eg. Shoulder, hip and thumb
Anterior-posterior movement
Sagittal plane movement around a mediolateral axis
Medial-lateral movement
Frontal plane movement around an anteroposterior axis
External-internal movement
Transverse plane movement around a longitudinal axis
- Gliding
- Angular
- Circumduction
- Rotation
4 types of movement for synovial joints
Gliding movement
Synovial joint, the heads of two bones glide back and forth against each other
Angular movement
- Synovial joint
* Increase or decrease in angle
- Flexion
- Extension
- Abduction
- Adduction
- Inversion
- Eversion
6 types of angular movement
External (or lateral) rotation and internal (medial) rotation
Rotation classifications for all joints but radioulnar
Ganglia (2)
- Knotlike swelling in the nerve where the cell bodies of many neurons are concentrated
- In cell bodies associated with PNS
Peripheral Nervous System (3)
- Made up of pairings that branch out from the brain and spinal cord from different regions
- 12 pairs of cranial nerves that come from the brain/stem through foramina (little holes in skull)
- 31 pairs of spinal nerves exit though intervertebral foramina
Two categories of PNS
- Afferent (sensory) division that sends info back
- Efferent (motor) division that acts out commands by the brain
* Somatic and autonomic nervous system
Somatic nervous system
Under conscious control, except for reflex responses.
Autonomic nervous system (3)
- Transmits impulses to the smooth muscles, cardiac muscle and glands.
- Cannot be consciously controlled.
- Divides into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
Sympathetic nervous system (3)
- Part of the autonomic nervous system, which is part of the peripheral nervous system.
- “Fight or flight” stress responses
- Activation affects nearly all organs to stop storing energy and mobilizing all resources to stress response.
Parasympathetic nervous system (3)
- Part of the autonomic nervous system, which is part of the peripheral nervous system.
- Controls normal functions when the body is relaxed:
- Digesting food, storing energy, promoting growth
Neuromuscular junction
Motor neurons form these with the skeletal muscles they affect.
Proprioceptors (2)
- Sense the position and movements of the body or its parts
* Occur in muscles, tendons, joint capsules, and inner ear
Cutaneous Receptors
Found in the skin and detect touch, pressure, temperature, pain, and movement of hairs.
Joint receptors
Respond to pressure, acceleration & decceleration of the joint
Pacinian corpuscles
Located deep within the skin and joints and sensitive to pressure
Meissner’s corpuscles
Superficial layers of skin, responsive to light touch.
Golgi-Mazzoni corpuscles
In joint capsule, s ensitive to joint compression
Musculotendinous receptor (2)
- Muscular control and coordination.
- Two types:
1. Golgi Tendon Organ
2. Muscle spindle
Golgi Tendon Organ (GTO) (4)
- Sense/detect changes in muscle tension
- Located close to tendon & muscle attachment
- Autogenic inhibition: Inhibit agonist muscle contraction (relaxation) and excite antagonist (opposing) muscles to prevent injury
- Theory that when fatigued, it is inhibited, so muscles find it easier to contract.
Agonist
The muscle that in a given situation is most directly involved in bringing about movement; The prime mover.
Antagonist muscle
Muscles that oppose, or reverse a particular movement
Muscle spindle (2)
Located in muscle belly
Lies parallel to muscle fibers
Stretches along with muscle stretch, exciting it, and causing a reflexive contraction
Static stretching (2)
Gradual form of stretching. Widely used, passively stretching and holding for a certain amount of time (10-20 seconds)
Vestibular (2)
Informs brain about head movement and helps maintain balance.
Found in the inner ear, contains three fluid-containing semicircular canals that contains sensory hairs.
Skeletal muscle
A type of striated muscle that is generally responsible for the voluntary movements of the body.
Longitudinal muscle (2 + example)
- Fibers run parallel to the tendon, forming a strap
- Capable of producing considerable movement, but relatively weak
- Eg. Sartorius muscle
Unipennate muscle (2 + example)
- Fibers attach at one side of the tendon
- Produce less movement but greater contractile force
- Eg. Anterior tibialis
Bipennate muscle (2 + example)
- Fibers run obliquely on both sides of a central tendon
- Produces less movement but more contractile force
- Eg. Gastrocnemius, rectus femoris
Multipennate muscle (1 + example)
- Tendon branches converge to a single tendon.
* Eg. Deltoid
Slow-twitch muscle fibers
Slow-oxidative or Type I muscle fibers
- Resistant to fatigue/capable of sustaining aerobic metabolism.
- Uses oxidative respiration: slower but higher energy yield.
- Contain large amounts of mitochondria myoglobin, s urrounded by more capillaries
Fast-twitch muscle fibers
Type II muscle fibers
- Contract faster than slow-twitch fibers
* Have two subtypes: Type IIx and IIa.
Type IIx muscle
- Largest and fastest, produce most force
- Cannot sustain effort for more than a few seconds
- Small amount of mitochondria
- Have a large number of glycolytic enzymes = great anaerobic capacity
Type IIa fiber (Fast-oxidative glycolytic fibers)
- Speed, fatigue resistance, force, duration = medium
- Used for strength and power activities
- Highly adaptable: can increase oxidative capabilities
Fasciae
A sheet or band of fibrous connective tissue enveloping, separating, or binding together muscles, organs.
Epimysium
Type of fasciae that encases the entire muscle
Perimysium
Bundles of muscle fibers grouped together by this fibrous sheath
Endomysium
Surround each individual muscle fiber
Myofibrils
- Protein filaments
* Each muscle fiber contains these, which run parallel to each other and extend lengthwise through the cell.
A Bands
- Dark bands
- Contain protein filament myosin
- Actin filaments also extend into here and overlap with the myosin
I Bands
- Contain actin
- Crossing the center of each band is a dense Z line that divides the myofibrils into a series of repeating segments called sacromeres
Sacromere
- Distance between two Z lines in a I Band
- Base contractile unit.
- Has a H zone in the center (thinner, lighter, less dense area where there is no actin)
H Zone
- Lighter, less dense area in myosin filament where there is no actin
- Thin, dark M line crosses center
Actin filaments
- Present in I Bands, minimally present in A Bands (until the H zone)
- Attach directly to Z lines
- Attach to cross-bridges of myosin to contract
Acetylcholine (in muscle)
- Released by nerve at neuromuscular junction, triggering release of calcium, which exposes binding sites along actin for myosin.
- If there is sufficient ATP, filaments bind with receptor sites and cross-bridges are formed, pulling the actin towards the center and the sacromere shortens. .
Collagen
- Connective tissue protein, most abundant of all
- Rigid and strong
- Main part of ligaments and tendons
- Striated structure
- Arranges in wavy bundles (fascicles)
- Connective tissues contain wavy folds known as crimp
Facicles
- Wavy bundle
* Composed of fibrils, which each have subfibrils
Crimp
- Folds of collagen fibers
- Behaves as a mechanical spring: Energy is stored in fiber and is released when pulled straight to return the fiber to its resting state when force is removed.
Elastin
- Elastic fibers made of amino acids.
- Responsible for determining the possible range of extensibility of muscle cells.
- Also disseminate mechanical stress, enhance coordination, maintain form, defend against excessive force
- Rupture point = 150% stretch
- Deteriorate with age
Load deformation curve
- zone 1=min. load, crimp
- zone2=elastic region, region of tissue resistance - remove force get recoil
- zone 3=plastic region, microfailure - get new resting point
- zone 4=complete failure - tissue rupture
- PTs=zone 2 and 3
Ligaments
Attach bone to bone
Fascia
All fibrous connective tissue that is not specifically named
Superficial fascia
Lies right below the skin and contains fat
Deep fascia
- Under superficial fascia and is tougher/tighter.
* Encases bones, muscles, nerves, blood vessels and organs
Subserous Fascia
Forms the fibrous layer of serious membranes that cover and support innermost body cavities.
Intramuscular fascia (deep fascia)
Related to flexibility and ROM
- Ensures proper alignment
- Effective transmission of forces
- Provides necessary lubricated surfaces to allow shape change
- 41% of total resistance (2nd to joint capsule ligament)
shoulder girdle
- Made up of scapula, clavicle, and humerus
* Scapula supported by soft tissue as there’s no direct articulation with the rib cage.
Trapezius, rhomboid major/minor and levator scapulae
Four posterior muscles of shoulder girdle
Pectoralis minor and serratus anterior
- Anterior muscles that act in the shoulder girdle.
* Protect and depress scapula
Trapezius
- Elevates, depresses, adducts, stabilizes scapula
* Extend head and shrug the shoulders
Glenoid fossa
The part of the scapula that joins with the humeral head to form the glenohumeral joint.
Rhomboid muscles
- Adducting, elevation and downwardly rotating the scapula
* Used in pull-ups to retract the scapula back towards the spinal cord.
Pectoralis minor and serratus anterior
Abduct the scapula in pushing movements, as in pushups. (2)
Pectoralis minor
- Stabilization, depression, downward rotation, and abduction of the scapula
- Antagonist to trapezius, rhomboids, and levator scapulae.
- Works in pushing movements like pushups.
S.I.T.S
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Teres Minor
Subscapularis
Rotator cuff, primary function = shoulder stability
Subluxation
Partial dislocation
Eg. Rotator Cuff prevents dislocation with S.I.T.S
Supraspinatus
- Holds humerus in glenoid fossa from a superior position.
- Works with deltoid in abduction of the arm.
- Can be easily injured, esp with throwing movements
Subscapularis
- Only part of S.I.T.S that originates on the anterior side.
- Medial rotator of the arm
- Stabilizes scapula
Teres major
- Arises from the lower medial portion of the scapula
- Internally rotates the humerus
- Effective only if rhomboids stabilize the scapula
- Works with lattisimus dorsi “Little lat”
Latisimus dorsi
- Widest muscle of the posterior trunk
- Powerful extensor of the humerus
- Adduct/internally rotate the humerus
- anteriorly tilt the pelvis
- Assist in lateral flexion of the spine
Pectoralis major
Lies on top of minor
Adduct the humerus
Internally rotates humerus
Can extend and flex the shoulder
Biceps bracii
- Originate on the scapula (weak flexor of shoulder
- When forearm turned out, strong flexor of the elbow.
- When forearm is pronated, can supinate it due to its insertion on the radius
Brachialis
Pulls on ulna, strong flexor of the forearm, pure flexor of the elbow
Brachioradialis
Acts to flex the elbow, supination at forearm, inserts in radius
Triceps brachii
- Primary extensor of the elbow
- Inserts at the olecranon process of the ulna.
- One head originates from the scapula.
Flexor carpi ulnaris, Palmaris longus, Pronator teres, Pronator quadratus
- Anterior group of muscles that acts as flexors of the wrist and pronators of the forearm.
- Originate on the medial epicondyle of the humerus.
Extensor carpi radialis longus/ulnaris/brevis, supinator
- Posterior group on the forearm
- Extensors of the wrist
- Supinators of the forearm
Anterior: Rectus abdominis (abs), external/internal obliques, transverse abdominis
Posterior: Erector spinae, multifidi
Abdominal wall
Abdominal wall
- Horizontal fibers that encircle
- Compress abdominal cavity, stabilize lumbar and pelvic regions
- Sucking in
Erector spinae (Comprised of? Divided into? Two functions)
- Comprised of spinalis, longissimus, and iliocostalis
- Divided into lumborum, thoracis cervicis, and capitis portions
- Acting bilaterally: Extend the spine
- Contract unilaterally: Laterally flex spine
Multifidi
Provide support to smaller sections of the spine
Acetabulum
Concave surface of the pelvis where head of the femur meets with the pelvis to form the coxal joint.
Iliopsoas muscle
- Psoas major + iliacus muscle
- Converge and insert on the femur with 1 tendon
- Flexion and external rotation of the femur
Quadriceps femoris muscle group
- rectus femoris
- vastus lateralis oblique (VLO)
- vastus intermedius
- vastus medialis
- vastus medialis oblique (VMO)
Extension of the leg at the knee
Rectus Femoris
Flexion at the hip, extension at the knee
Adductor brevis, longus, and magnus + gracilis (also flexes knee)
Adductor group of the anterior leg/hip.
Gluteus maximus
- Largest and most superficial posterior hip muscle
- Extensor and external rotator of the hip
- When beyond 15 degrees extension, acts as extensor and external rotator of the hip.
- Not used much in ordinary walking.
- Strong in running, jumping.
Gluteus medius
- Tendon crosses the top of the hip joint, making it a hip abductor
- Important role in walking: Prevent the other hip from sagging
Gluteus minimus
- Tendon of insertion passes in from of the hip joint, allowing it to internally rotate the femur.
- Important role in walking: Prevent the other hip from sagging
Piriformis, gemellus inferior/superior, obturator internus/externus, quadratus femoris
- Deep lateral rotators
* Externally rotate the femur in the acetabulum.
Sciatica
Inflammation of the sciatic nerve that may accompany recurrent or chronic low back pain radiating into the posterior leg. Goes near the piriformis muscle in the hip.
Biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus
- Hamstrings, flexion of knee and extending the thigh
- Origin at the ischial tuberosity, insertion at tibia.
- Primary flexors of the knee.
- Pass medially or laterally behind the knee, leaving the popliteal space.
Knee extensors
Anterior compartment of the quadriceps:
1. Rectus femoris
- Vastus intermedius
- Vastus lateralis
- Vastus medialis
Converge and share one patellar tendon
Proximal talus
- Tibia and fibula articulate distally with this
- Forms a hinge: Allows only dorsiflexion and plantarflexion
- Articulation of this and the subtalar joint allows for inversion and eversion of the foot.
Gastrocnemius and soleus
- Powerful plantarflexors
- Share Achilles tendon insertion
- For standing calf exercise (G)
- For sitting calf exercise (S)
Gastrocnemius
Origin on the femus and cross the posterior knee.
Two joint muscle:
- Flex knee (more effective when not plantarflexing)
- Plantarflex ankle
- Pituitary
- Thyroid
- Parathyroids
- Adrenals
- Pancreas
- Gonads
Principal endocrine glands (6)
Pituitary glands
- “Master gland”: Regulatory effect on many other hormone producing glands
- Located beneath the brain
- Divided into anterior and posterior lobes
Posterior pituitary gland
- Produces vassopressin (antidiuretic)
* Releases oxytocin (stimulates smooth muscles of reproductive organs and intestines)
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone (LH)
- Anterior pituitary gland
* Gonadotropins, control the secretion of estrogen/progesterone and testosterone.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Anterior pituitary
- Stimulates the synthesis/re;ease of thyroxine from the thyroid gland
- Helps control the rate at which all cells utilize oxygen.
Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
- Anterior pituitary
- Controls secretion in adrenal gland of hormones that influence the metabolism of carbohydrates, sodium and potassium.
- Controls blood and tissue exchange amount
Groth hormone (GH)
- Anterior pituitary
- Stimulated growth of skeletal system and general growth
- Promote formation of glucose and release into the blood
Thyroid gland
- Largest endocrine organs in body
- Releases thyroxine/ triidothyronine: Regulate metabolism of carbs, lipids, proteins and increasing the body’s oxygen consumption and heat production
- Releases calcitonin: lowers blood calcium and phospate levels by making bones absorb calcium.
Prolactin
Initiation and maintenance of breast-milk production and secretion
Parathyroid glands
- 4 structures located on the posterior side of the thyroid gland
Release parathyroid hormone (PTH): - Controls levels of calcium and phosphorus though kidneys and skeleton (increases bone resorption, breaking down bone for release into blood)
- Works with vitamin D
Medulla adrenal gland
- Two pyramidal organs close to the superior of each kidney
- Inner portion: Stress responses
- Epinephrine (adrenaline): Increases HR, respiratory rate, stimulates glycogenolysis and lipolysis, vasodilatation/constriction
- Norepinephrine (noradrenaline): Acts on the heart
Adrenal Cortex (adrenal gland)
- Two pyramidal complexes on the superior ends of the kidneys
- Outer portion
- Secretes mineralocorticoids: Na+/K metabolism
- Glucocorticoids: use of glucose and mobilization of fatty acids
- Gonadocorticoids: Testosterone, estrogen, progesterone
