HST-180 Online Practice Questions Flashcards
Although early societies such as those responsible for Stonehenge demonstrate a number of characteristics that define Western civilization, they lacked the critical feature of…
writing
Western civilization developed in the Middle East where the growth of culture was supported by a number of advantages. Which of the following was NOT one of these advantages?
an egalitarian society
Ancient slavery was NOT based on which of the following conditions?
race
People in the Fertile Crescent developed an organized society becasue
the difficult environment required planning for successful irrigation
Which of the following did Sumerian law not permit?
adultery
When Sargon invaded Sumer in 2350 B.C.E., what did he use to promote peace between Akkadians and Sumerians?
religion
Hammurabi’s code
included different punishments for the three social orders
what was one of the technological innovations of the Indo-Europeans?
four-wheeled cards
Which of the following does NOT conform to the idea of ma’at?
attaining wealth through warfare
During the First Intermediate Period, Egyptians experienced…
economic and political problems
During her reign, Hatshepsut pursued what kinds of policies?
trade, peace, and strong defense
Ramses II managed to restore some of the former greatness of the Egyptian empire. After his rule, …
challenges from invaders contributed to the downfall of the empire
The construction of the great temple in Jerusalem was accomplished with the skills of…
Phoenician craftsmen
The most important commandment in the Hebrew legal traditions was based upon
the idea that Yahweh demanded exclusive worship
Which of the following was one of the benefits of exile for Jewish women?
the strengthening of the family as a social and religious unit
Assyrians were remarkable for their…
advanced military techniques
Ashurbanipal played an important role in Western civilization because of…
the massive library, which preserved Mesopotamian literature.
Babylonians funded the construction of their magnificent city through
commerce
The city of Babylon fell so easily to the invading Persians because
Babylonian rulers had alienated even their own peoples and lacked support
Zoroastrianism shared which of the following features with Judaism?
a concern with ethics and justice
What allowed the contributions of the Middle Eastern cultures to endure and influence the development of Western civilization?
patterns of interaction and cross-fertilization
Over many centuries, Indo-Europeans settled in Europe (as well as in modern-day Turkey and Iran).
They were able to migrate vast distances with the aid of four-wheeled carts.
There were many important rulers of Ancient Egypt. Which of the following statements does NOT accurately describe the “god-king” in question?
Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) forced Egyptians to worship a large number of traditional deities.
The first Homo sapiens came from which region of the world?
sub-Saharan Africa
The Minoan script called Linear A, written on clay tablets,
appears to have been used for trade and accounting
While the mythical version of the Trojan War attributes the conflict to competition over a woman, scholars believe that the war was caused by
economic competition and increasing violence throughout the Mediterranean
Greek ideals of heroism led to some ambiguous results, one of which was
their disregard for other cultures
The consultation of the Delphic oracle by King Croesus of Lydia
showed the fickle nature of the Greek gods
The cult of Dionysus appealed to women because
it allowed women to escape domestic confinement
Thales of Miletus applied his knowledge of astronomy and geometry to
predict a solar eclipse
Advances in trade around 700 B.C.E. led to what advance in warfare?
hoplite phalanx
Benefit clubs in some Greek societies
loaned money to slaves so that they could buy their own freedom
The archons, elected by the Ecclesia to run the city of Athens
served for a single year before entering the Areopagus
Solon tried to weaken the power of Aeropagus by
creating a council that set the agenda for the Ecclesia
The number of citizens who could participate in the assembly was limited by
the size of the auditorium
In Spartan society, physically deficient infants were
exposed
The first athletic contests among Hellenes consisted of
a foot race
When Xerxes, Darius I’s successor, invaded the Greek mainland,
some norther city-states surrendered immediately to the Persians.
The key to Greek defense lay in
controlling the Aegean sea
In what way does the Parthenon reveal Greek beliefs about the relationship between gods and humans
Statues of both gods and Athenians resemble one another, showing the common features of humans and divine figures.
The fighting between Sparta and Athens was complicated by
the Spartans’ strength on land versus the Athenians’ strength at sea
Socrates was brought to trial for
impiety and corrupting the young
In Plato’s Republic, society would be governed by
a philosopher-king
Greek comedy often focused on
the body, sex, and base inclinations
The Peloponnesian War resulted in
increased competition among the city-states
The geography of the Greek peninsula directly influenced the culture of the ancient Greeks. Which of the following statements accurately describes the region?
The Greek peninsula is surrounded by the Aegean Sea, the Ionian Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and Macedonia.
Which of the following statements correctly reflects the system of Ancient Greek religious beliefs?
Greeks believed that the will of the gods could be known.
When the reforms of the Athenian Solon failed to create a secure form of government, Cleisthenes created a constitution (508 B.C.E.), which established an unprecedented degree of direct democracy. Which of the following statements about the constitution of Cleisthenes is not true?
The Council of 500 was dominated by the wealthiest citizens
In the story of Rumulus and Remus, the boys were fathered by…
Mars.
Rome overlooked a plain that was well-suited for…
large-scale agriculture
In the traditional version of the overthrow of the Etruscan kings, Lucretia…
committed suicide after being raped.
The “Struggle of the Orders” was fueled by two main issues; protecting the poor from the abuses of the powerful, and…
granting the wealthy plebeians some participation in government
In 287 B.C.E., plebeians gained the power to _____ when the Tribal Assembly became the principal legislative body.
make laws that applied to everyone without Senate approval
The largest group of clients were typically…
small and tenant farmers.
The main motive behind Roman expansion was…
continual land hunger.
Women wielded some power in Roman society through…
the authority they exerted over their sons.
Romans disposed of their garbage…
by dumping it outside city walls.
Whenever the consuls raised the red flag in the Forum, …
free householders had to report to the capitol within thirty days.
Roman warfare differed from traditional Mediterranean warfare in which regard?
Roman soldiers vowed to fight to the death or until war ended.
The first Punic war began over the issue of controlling…
the Sicilian city of Messana.
During the third Punic War, …
Scipio sailed to North Africa, forcing Hannibal home.
In the provinces, _____ appointed governors to preserve peace and administer justice to Roman citizens.
The Roman Senate
In the countryside, slaves worked in mining and agriculture, while in the city, slaves
often worked in the same occupations as citizens.
As small farms went bankrupt, the newly rich who bought up their lands…
cultivated more lucrative crops like olives and wine grapes.
Engineers used _____ to regulate the rate of water flowing through the top channel of aqueducts.
Arches
Julius Caesar used _____ to enhance his popularity in Rome.
accounts of military campaigns
In addition to controlling the price of grain in order to appease poorer Romans, Gaius also tried to appeal to _____ by granting them more influence in the wealthy provinces.
the equestrian order
Besides putting his soldier on a pay roll, Marius also…
promised them land for their service
Caesar tired to solve Rome’s economic problems by reforming the grain dole, encouraging colonization, and…
establishing a public works program to create jobs.
About 509 B.C.E., the Roman people rebelled against the Etruscan kings who had ruled over the Romans since about 616 B.C.E. The Romans defeated the Etruscan monarchy and instituted, in its place, a republic. This republic…
was dominated by an aristocratic class.
In a typical well-to-do Roman household, childrearing featured many accepted practices. Which of the following traits characterized childrearing in the Roman world?
exposure of infants
One of the most talented Roman playwrights was Terence (190-159 B.C.E.), who…
wrote plays based on traditional Greek models
The Second Triumvirate disintegrated into a power struggle between…
Octavian and Marc Anthony
Augustus was praised as “Father of the Fatherland” in part because
he used his personal wealth to increase his power and popularity.
Marcus Aurelius, an emperor highly educated in law, embraced the customs of _____ at a very young age.
Stoicism
Like Alexander, Augustus increased strength of his army by .
recruiting noncitizens into the army
If a woman bore three children, Roman law exempted the woman from
male guardianship
Roman physicians believed that sexual intercourse
weakened men but did not have the same impact on women.
Local amphitheaters in major Roman cities provided a venue for
expressions of Roman power, virtue, and generosity.
Septimuius’s reforms may have kept some of Rome’s problems at bay, but the legacy of _____ threatened Rome’s stability.
an expensive and powerful army
Diocletian organized the government into a tetrarchy, which divided the empire into
four parts
The most important factor in the so-called “fall of Rome” was…
invasions of people from the north.
New philosophies like Neoplatonism typically attracted ____ people, as had the similar philosophies of the Hellenistic kingdoms.
educated, prosperous
Septimus and his wife portrayed themselves as
Isis and her consort Serapis.
Herod rose to per in Hebron, with the support of _____ the Roman Senate made him king of Judea.
Octavian
For the Zealots, _____ was a crucial event that shaped their approach toward the problem maintaining a Jewish identity.
The Maccabean revolt
Like many others in the Roman world, the apostles believed that _____ indicated divine presence.
prophecy and miracles
In the earliest period of the spread of Christianity, converts usually met in
the houses of other converts
In the third century, emperors trying to quell a crisis tried to force all subjects of the empire, with exception of the Jews, to
worship the imperial cult
Once the empire embraced Christianity, ____ became the backbone of imperial governance and increasingly handled secular affairs.
bishops
The Donatist heresy was a split among Christians over
whether the behavior of a priest effected the validity of the sacraments.
In Confessions, Augustine argued that
original sin was passed on to new generations through semen.
Christians fled to the desert to escape
persecution and taxes
Augustus devised a system of governemnt led by a single ruler, the emperor. However, he did not resolve the mechanism by which emperors would succeed one another. As a consequence, his death in 14 C.E. was followed by
rule by a series of emperors related to Augustus’s family.
Mithraism was
the worship of Ahura Mazda
Everyday life in the Roman territories was transformed as Christianity gained more and more adherents. Which one of the following statements does NOT accurately describes these transformations?
Christians weren’t supposed to read the epic poems of Virgil and Homer.
Germanic women participated in many activities, including agriculture, but their primary responsibilities were
household care and pottery and textiles
Germanic peoples’ diet consisted mainly of
plants, including grains, mead, ale, and milk
Ulfila, who helped convert the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, had been influenced by the teachings of
Arius
As Germanic pagans and Arians converted to orthodox Christianity, they
began to speak the Romance languages
Gregory the Great extended his power by
acting as a territorial ruler in addition to acting as head of the church.
The establishment of monasteries in Ireland aided the process of conversion because
Ireland lacked the ecclesiastical structures of the rest of the West
The Merovingian family often used _____ as a means of consolidating their rule.
political assassination
Cassiodorus wrote a historical chronicle, the Origin of the Goths, to show that
the Goths had a history comparable to that of the Romans
The Lombards ruled for a time in northern Italy until
the Franks conquered them.
The purpose of the Corpus Iuris Civilis was to
organize and clarify Roman law.
The people of Constantinople gathered in the _____ to see the chariot races.
The hippodrome
Village families in the Byzantine Empire owed
one equipped man for military service
The Byzantines used eastern customs such as _____ as they moved away from the western traditions
eunuchs and making people prostrate themselves before the emperor
Part of the motive in prohibiting the worship of icons was
to challenge the power of icon-producing monasteries
The _____ brought Christianity to the Slavic peoples.
Byzantine Empire
Mecca was an important city for which of the following reasons?
It was both a trading center and a site of worship.
In 732, the Muslim forces were defeated by
Charles Martel
The Muslims tolerated Jews and Christians because
they all shared the same scriptures and god.
The Umayyad caliphate, located in Damascus, emphasized
Arabs
Muslim mathematicians used Arabic numerals to
invent algebra
During the 5th century, the British Isles were transformed by
the settlement of Wales and Ireland by Celtic Britons
According to the “Petrine doctrine,”
the bishops of Rome were chosen by Christ to lead the Christian world.
While the western Roman Empire suffered invasions, economic dislocation, and social fragmentation, the eastern Roman Empire, now called the Byzantine Empire, continued to flourish. Which one of the following statements about the Byzantine Empire is NOT true?
The Byzantine Empire preserved Latin in the East.
Which one of the following statements accurately describes Kievan Rus?
Kievan Rus adopted a written language created by two Byzantine missionaries.
Justice among the early Germanic peoples depended upon
private vengeance
Theodore of Tarsus, sent by Pope Vitalian in 669 to Canterbury,
encouraged learning by founding schools and Benedictine monasteries
The Venerable Bede’s scientific text, The Nature of Things, discussed
the orbits of the earth, heavens, and stars, and the roundness of the earth.
The earls of Anglo-Saxon England were responsible for
recruiting and leading armies, and acting as judges
The norther lands ruled by Guthrum in the 9th century came to be known as
Danelaw
To enhance his authority, Charlemagne required
his nobles to attend two assemblies a year.
Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor after Charlemagne
restored order in Rome
The peace negotiated by Charlemagne
increased trade and prosperity
The text reform of the scholars at Charlemagne’s court addressed
problems of errors and non-standardized handwriting.
The Cluniac charter refined the Benedictine rule and made the monastic order subject to
the authority of the pope.
Louis the Pious’s sons contributed to the disintegration of Charlemagne’s empire by
fighting amongst themselves.
Northmen usually migrated for which of the following reasons?
violence and wealth
The vikings abandoned their settlements in North America because
their relations with natives turned violent
In the 11th century, Scandinavians
converted to Christianity
In addition to the produce of their fields, peasants relied upon _____ for additional food.
farm animals and the resources of the forest
In exchange for the labor of the peasants, lords provided
capital investments, justice, and protection
Lords encouraged marriage and the growth of serf families because
they needed to replenish their labor force
In addition to land, lords often owed their vassals
advocacy in court.
In what ways did noblewomen exert some autonomy in their lives under the feudalistic system?
women managed manors and financial affairs while their husbands were away.
Women played a crucial role in medieval medicine by
treating illnesses with food and herbs.
Which of the following statements does NOT accurately describe the government of Anglo-Saxon England during the Middle Ages?
Kings prohibited local communities from establishing their own administrations.
Under Charlemagne’s patronage, knowledge was divided into seven categories. Four of these categories constituted the “quadrivium” or advanced curriculum. Which of the following categories was NOT part of the quadrivium?
rhetoric
As the population increased, many peasants
cultivated new land, often in the east.
The guilds of medieval towns served to
protect and control trade interests
The Henseatic League was established to
organize the cities of the northern trade into a monopoly
_____ was typical of the new Gothic architecture
the pointed arch
Students seeking an advanced degree in law went to _____ to study.
Bologna
Anselm applied the dialect to show that
God was perfect and therefore must exist
Hildegard’s Of Causes and Cures included information about
classical and popular approaches to health and medicine
Private chambers in nobles’ castles were used
for sleeping and the storage of valuables
Aside form satisfying a social need, jousts were served to
provide young men with ways of winning horses and armor.
William, as part of his plan to control his new Anglo-Saxon kingdom,
replaced the Witan with and assembly of his own vassals
Henry II increased his holdings in France by
marrying a French heiress
As Christians slowly retook the Iberian Peninsula,
kings granted Muslims and Jews privileges
The one means for consolidation NOT often used by French kings was
war and conquest
King Philip IV tried to college money from _____ to fund wars.
the church
Frederick II’s rule ended the changes for a unified Germany because
upon his death, German princes elected a weak prince as emperor
Which of the following figures was crucial in the resolution of the investiture controversy?
Matilda, Countess of Tuscany
Which of the following issues was NOT pronounces upon by the Fourth Lateran Council?
lay investiture
The strengths of the Turks and _____ were two major motives for the Crusades.
control of the Holy Land
Both the Franciscans and the Dominicans
took oaths of poverty
The church dealt with Catharism by
massacring heretics and orthodox believers alike
Many medieval thinkers believed that pure reason, without reference to the external world of physical things, was the best means to understanding the true nature of reality. However, some medieval philosophers emphasized empiricism and experimentation which, today, serve as the basis for the natural sciences. One scholar who popularized the “scientific method” was
Roger Bacon
During the 11th century, England went through several formative transformations, including all EXCEPT which of the following?
Scandinavian/Danish rule in England expanded.
Petrarch exemplified the Renaissance interest in the classics by writing letters to
Livy
Proximity to the ancient ruins and texts, political instability, and ____ acted as catalysts to the rise of Renaissance ideas in Italy.
the plague
The Renaissance was mostly secular because
it emphasized applying its ideas to this world, not the next
_____ formed the basis of an ideal Renaissance education
the humanities
Humanist scholarship and the arts of the Renaissance
were made possible by patronage
The success of the printing press in Europe in part depended upon
paper-making technology
The two general categories of Italian city-state governments were
republics and principalities
After Lorenzo’s death, the city of Florence
was invaded by French armies
Venice enjoyed stability and prosperity under the rule of
the doge
The Visconti family’s strategy for rule in Milan emphasized
military strength
Pope Julius II made Rome a cultural hub by hiring artists like
Michelangelo
Most people during the Renaissance blamed _____ for the rise in crime.
wanderers and vagabonds
The largest exodus of Jews during the Renaissance took place in
Spain in 1492
Florence’s silk trade boomed with the
arrival of the Chinese silk loom
Families who could not afford dowries for their daugters
encouraged them to enter convents
Child-raising techniques differed in which of the following ways for boys and girls?
Marriages for girls were arranged at an early age.
Architects during the Renaissance period
were rarely trained in the craft of architecture
Raphael combined _____ in his paintings
realism and religious themes
Leonardo gained his knowledge of human anatomy by
dissecting cadavers
Among the famous Renaissance figures brought
Leonardo da Vinci
The South Bank of London was famous for its crime, its prostitution, and
the Globe theater
The most significant improvement in military technology since the 14th century was
long lines of infantrymen and foot soldiers
The Habsburg-Valois Wars devastated the
Italian city-states
When Erasmus went to study in England, he struck up a friendship with
Thomas More
Luther believed that people’s souls were saved by
faith
Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses were rapidly circulated throughout Europe in part because
of the printing press
The idea of a priesthood of all believers meant that
people were responsible for their own salvation
Most Protestant reformers accepted only the sacraments of
baptism and the Eucharist
The Peace of Augsburg
allowed princes to determine the religion of their principalities.
Zwingli, who was instrumental in turning Switzerland Protestant, had been influenced by
Erasmus
Calvin fled to the more tolerant city of Geneva because
Francis I began to persecute Protestants
Which of the following was a contributing factor to the spread of Calvinistic ideas?
missionaries
Henry VIII got his annulment by
cutting off the pope’s authority with an act of Parliament
Elizabeth I confronted the dilemma of religious diversity
with a policy of religious tolerance
The Complutensian Polygot Bible published by the new university at Alcala de Henares
compared Hebrew, Greek, and Latin versions of the text
In what way did the Jesuits combine Catholicism and humanism?
their emphasis on education
The churchman attending the Council of Trent sought authority in
the scriptures and tradition
What did Philip perceive to be the two greatest threats to his rule and faith?
Protestants and Muslims
Philip sent his Armada to England when
Elizabeth refused to marry him.
Religious conflict and the issue of ____ provoked the Thirty Years’ War.
the emperor’s authority over German princes
The principle of _____ shaped the negotiation of the Peace of Westphalia.
balance of power
The Peace of Augsburg (1555) established a formal resolution to the political and religious conflicts stared by Martin Luther’s attacks against the church. By this treaty,
each German prince would define his principality as either Lutheran or Catholic.
From 1545 to 1563, Catholic Church leaders intermittently held conferences collectively called the Council of Trent. In the end, this historic body, reacting to the success of Protestantism, declared
that clerical corruption and ignorance were unacceptable
The main object from the East of European cravings was
silks
Prester John was a _____ who ignited the imaginations of Europeans
European explorer
One of the errors of Ptolemy’s map was
a grave underestimation of the size of the earth
The astrolabe allowed sailors to
determine their position in the Southern Hemisphere
As the Portuguese explored the coast of Africa and the East,
they established trading posts.
Explorers following Columbus discovered
a new continenet
When the Dutch came to the Spice Islands, they
expelled the Portuguese.
Agriculture spread more slowly in the Americas because
the different latitudes and growing seasons impeded its spread
Which of the following was a weakness that both the Aztec and Incan empires shared and that made them vulnerable to European conquest?
internal strife
Cabeza de Vaca was impressed by the Southwest Amerindians’
generosity and hospitality
Atahualpa’s fatal mistake with the Spanish was
underestimating the Spanish
After the Europeans arrived in the New World, disease and _____ were the primary causes of death among Amerindians.
overwork
What was the impact of the slave trade on the kingdom of the Congo?
a weakened monarchy
The Virgin Mary commanded Juan Diego to
build a church in her honor.
The price revolution could roughly be characterized as
a tremendous increase in prices resulting from a variety of factors.
The joint-stock company allowed
modest investors participation in commercial ventures
Mercantilist policies favored
the state
The commercial revolution
relegated women to the home and domestic duties
The word “privateer” implied that
the raider had a formal commission from a ruler.
The stimulant that made the greatest impact on European society was
tobacco
The Mercator map represented a breakthrough for navigation because it
allowed sailors to map a straight course
During the 16th and 17th centuries, Christian missionaries traveled throughout the world seeking to convert non-Christian populations. The missionary movement
valued the salvation of Native Americans over that of African slaves.
The increasing taxes levied on peasants during the 17th century resulted in
tax revolts
17th century European monarchs justified their rule by reference to
divine right
Henry IV ended religious wars between the Protestants and Catholics in France by issuing
the Edict of Nantes
Cardinal Richelieu strengthened the position of the French monarchy by
destroying nobles who opposed the king and creating the intendant system
During the reign of Louis XIV, France fought all of the following wars EXCEPT
the Seven Years’ War
Most of the land in eastern Europe was worked by
serfs
Frederic William solidified his position and enhanced the status of the Brandenburg-Prussia by
strengthening the standing army
The Russian ruler who attempted to westernize and modernize Russia was
Peter I
The Russian Law Code of 1649
merged peasants and slaves into a class of serfs
Peter the Great allowed people to move up through the ranks of the nobility only because of
merit
Under Peter the Great, Russia, through military victory, gained a port on
the Baltic Sea
In Poland, a strong central government failed to form because
the nobles in the Polish Diet were able to safegaurd their power
The official church of England was the
Anglican church
After its members forced Charles I to agree that he could not disband them without their consent, the English Parliament became known as the
Long Parliament
The parliamentary forces that fought against Charles I and were led by Oliver Cromwell were called the
Roundheads
Because of the turbulence and severe economic problems suffered by England in the 1640s, a group calling for social justice emerged and were known as the
Levellers
During his trial, Charles I continually maintained that
Parliament had no right to bring charges against him.
In his political treatise the Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes argued that
humans created a “social contract” with their rulers by which they willingly surrendered their sovereignty.
In the Glorious Revolution of 1688, Parliament asked which Protestant leader to take over the English throne?
William of Orange
In the United Provinces, or the Dutch Republic, sovereignty remained the prerogative of the people and political power remained localized for all of the following reasons EXCEPT that
Dutch economic prosperity facilitated political independence
The lives of peasants in seventeenth-century Europe were usually patterned after a set of social norms. For example, peasants typically owed increasingly burdensome services to their political and spiritual superiors. What is another such characteristic of seventeenth-century peasant life?
Men did heavier work than women
After 1600, monarchs typically centralized power by
granting aristocrats invitations to the royal court.
In 1633, Galileo Galilei was forced by the Catholic Inquisition to deny his view that
the earth revolves around the sun
Which of the following is NOT one of Johannes Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion?
The planets rotate on their axes at the speed of light.
The Catholic Church’s reaction to the Copernican system was to
denounce it and put its supporters on trial
Isaac Newton is most well-known for his discovery
of the universal law of gravitation
René Descartes’ philosophical attempt to remove all assumptions about knowledge left him with what one reality from which he used deductive reasoning to draw conclusions?
“I think, therefore I am.”
In order to spread their ideas, scientific scholars were dependent upon all of the following EXCEPT
the opportunity to travel to and explore the New World
Enlightenment thinkers believed that an important element of any education was
the methods of science
Enlightenment thinkers glorified Newton, because from his work they were able to conclude that
reason and nature were compatible
The English philosopher John Locke concluded in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding that human learning is the result of
human experiences
Religious nonconformity was a political threat during the 17th century because
shared religious principles served as a buttress to and inherent part of European political systems of the time.
Voltaire and other French intellectuals idealized England in the early 18th century because
they believed it offered greater individual freedom and admired its political system.
Intellectuals believed the 18th century was inaugurating a new, “modern” epoch of human history in which science and reason would bring
human progress
Enlightenment thinkers believed that the guide for human thought and society-because of its laws, order, simplicity, and rationality-should be
nature
The work that best summarizes Enlightenment though in its entirety is
the Encyclopedia
The political philosophers Montesquieu and Jean-Jacques Rousseau built on the work of
John Locke
What type of government did the majority of philosophes believe would be most effective at enacting Enlightenment reforms, such as religious toleration, impartial laws, and freedom of speech?
enlightened absolutism
Cesare Beccaria applied reason and natural law to criminal law and punishment and concluded that criminal law should
rehabilitate the criminal, not simply punish
While women often patronized and led the salon gatherings of the philosophes in France, most male thinkers believed they were best suited for
domestic affairs in the home
Which of the following helped make Enlightenment ideas accessible to all classes?
bookstores
René Descartes’ system of philosophy, called Cartesian dualism, provided scholars with a new way to understand truths about nature. What lay at the center of this new philosophy of science?
mathematical reasoning
Which of the following European institutions played the LEAST role in the spread of new scientific ideas in 1600-1800?
the Catholic Church
