HS Midterm IDs Flashcards
Vedas
Who, What, When, and Where:
- Who: Ancient Indo-Aryans.
- What: A collection of sacred hymns and texts that form the foundation of Vedic Hinduism.
- When: Composed over a period from approximately 1500 BCE to 500 BCE.
- Where: The Indian subcontinent, particularly the northern regions.
Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words):
The Vedas are among the oldest extant texts in any Indo-European language and form the bedrock of Vedic Hinduism. They are a compendium of hymns, mantras, rituals, and philosophies. Originating in the oral tradition, they were passed down through generations before being penned.
There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rigveda, the oldest, is primarily hymnal, praising deities like Agni, Indra, and Varuna. The other three Vedas focus on liturgy, rituals, and incantations essential for ceremonies.
A critical feature of this period was the role of the Brahmins, who acted as priests and ritual specialists. They held significant authority, given their exclusive knowledge of the Vedas and their crucial role in performing rituals.
The age of the Vedas was also marked by philosophical inquiries, with the latter Vedic texts, particularly the Upanishads, delving into existential and metaphysical questions.
**Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words): **
The Vedas profoundly influenced Vedic society, offering rituals for societal cohesion and a pantheon reflecting nature’s interconnectedness. Brahmins, as Vedic custodians, held considerable authority. Over time, a shift from ritualism to philosophical inquiries marked the period, with explorations into the nature of existence. The Vedas became the foundation for diverse traditions shaping the Indian spiritual and cultural landscape.
Samsara
Who, What, When, and Where:
- Who: Adherents of major Indian religions including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
- What: The cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, the perpetual cycle of reincarnation until one achieves moksha or enlightenment.
- When: Conceptualized during the later Vedic period and solidified in the post-Vedic era, approximately from 1st millennium BCE onwards.
- Where: Indian subcontinent.
Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words):
Emerging from the metaphysical explorations of the later Vedic period, samsara encapsulates the cyclical nature of existence.
During the time of the Upanishads, there was a shift from ritualistic practices of the earlier Vedic age to deeper contemplation about the nature of self, the universe, and the ultimate reality. This period, characterized by a multitude of philosophical discourses, gave birth to concepts like karma, dharma, and moksha, closely interlinked with samsara. The idea that actions (karma) in one’s life influence their future births became central to understanding life’s purpose and ethics.
The later emergence of religions like Buddhism and Jainism further expanded and nuanced the concept. While they adopted the idea of samsara, they provided their interpretations. For instance, Buddhism presented the Four Noble Truths, where the cessation of suffering (dukkha) was attainable by breaking free from samsara.
**Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words): **
Samsara shaped worldviews, ethics, and spiritual aspirations in Indian religions, emphasizing righteous living and the quest for liberation. Interlinked with karma and dharma, it instilled moral responsibility, driving ascetic movements and spiritual practices. Influencing art, literature, and culture, samsara symbolized the human spirit’s existential quest amid life’s transient nature.
Oracle Bones
Who, What, When, and Where:
- Who: Ancient Chinese, primarily Shang dynasty rulers and priests.
- What: Pieces of turtle shell or bone used for pyromancy, a form of divination.
- When: Predominantly during the Shang dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE).
- Where: Ancient China, particularly the site of Anyang.
**Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words): **
Oracle bones provide a captivating glimpse into the religious, political, and social fabric of ancient China, especially during the Shang dynasty. The Shang rulers were not just political leaders but also key religious figures. They maintained close communication with their ancestors’ spirits, believed to influence the living realm.
Divination was central to Shang religious practice. Before significant events or decisions – such as battles, hunts, or royal ceremonies – the Shang elite sought guidance or confirmation from ancestral spirits. This consultation was done using oracle bones.
Priests would inscribe questions on these bones, often regarding future events or outcomes. The bones were then subjected to heat, causing them to crack. These cracks were interpreted as answers or messages from the ancestors or deities. Once the divination process was completed, the outcomes, often along with the inscribed questions, were documented on the bones.
**Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words): **
Oracle bones were pivotal in the Shang dynasty, reflecting the rulers’ divine legitimacy and the era’s spiritual beliefs. Beyond divination, these inscriptions offer a comprehensive glimpse into Shang civilization, from governance to daily life. They underscore the significance of record-keeping, revealing a sophisticated bureaucracy and shedding light on the evolution of the Chinese script.
Brahmins
Who, What, When, and Where:
- Who: Brahmins.
- What: The priestly class, one of the highest varnas or classes in the Vedic society.
- When: Their prominence is evident from the Vedic period (around 1500 BCE) onward.
- Where: Indian subcontinent.
**Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words): **
In ancient India, during the Vedic period, society was stratified into a four-fold varna system, consisting of the Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), and Shudras (laborers). This system, rooted in the Vedic texts, played a fundamental role in organizing and categorizing social roles and responsibilities.
Brahmins occupied a unique and elevated status in this hierarchy. They were the custodians of sacred knowledge, responsible for performing rituals, maintaining and transmitting the Vedas (sacred scriptures), and ensuring the religious and moral order of society (dharma).
The Brahminical order was marked by rigorous discipline, learning, and ascetic practices. They spent significant portions of their lives studying the Vedas and other religious texts. Their deep knowledge of these scriptures and rituals made them indispensable for conducting significant ceremonies, be it births, marriages, or royal consecrations.
However, as society evolved, especially during the later Vedic period and the rise of Janapadas (proto-states), Brahmins expanded their roles. They became close advisors to kings, diplomats, and sometimes even took on administrative roles. This further cemented their influence, not just religiously, but politically and socially as well.
**Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words): **
Brahmins were the linchpin of Vedic society, playing central religious, political, and cultural roles. They maintained cosmic order through rituals, wielded significant socio-economic privileges, and legitimized rulers. As carriers of the Sanskrit language and Vedic scriptures, they preserved India’s ancient knowledge. Their adaptability in the face of ideological challenges marked their resilience and strategic thinking.
Mandate of Heaven
Who, What, When, and Where:
- Who: Ancient Chinese rulers and dynasties.
- What: A philosophical concept and political doctrine used to justify the rule of the king or emperor of China.
- When: Introduced during the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE) and continued throughout subsequent Chinese history.
- Where: Ancient China.
**Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words): **
The Mandate of Heaven emerged as a pivotal ideology during the Zhou dynasty, one of China’s longest-lasting dynasties. It postulated that Heaven (or Tian) bestowed its mandate upon a just ruler, granting him the divine right to govern. If the ruler became despotic or if his governance led to chaos and suffering, it was inferred that he had lost this Mandate, and his removal, even by force, was justified.
This doctrine helped the Zhou legitimize their overthrow of the Shang dynasty. The Shang, they asserted, had become corrupt and decadent, losing the Mandate, which had then shifted to the Zhou due to their virtuous rule.
The Mandate of Heaven established a cyclical understanding of Chinese history. Dynasties would rise, secure the Mandate with their just rule, but over time, they’d become corrupt, lose the Mandate, and then be replaced by a new dynasty that had Heaven’s favor.
**Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words): **
The Mandate of Heaven provided rulers with divine legitimacy while holding them accountable for just governance. This principle, introduced by the Zhou, became intrinsic to Chinese political thought, encouraging moral governance and establishing a cosmic perspective on dynastic change. It also promoted a sense of continuity, reinforcing China’s position as the divinely favored “Middle Kingdom.”
Ren
Who, What, When, and Where:
- Who: Ancient Chinese philosophers, especially Confucius.
- What: “Ren” is a fundamental concept in Confucianism, often translated as “benevolence,” “humanity,” or “human-heartedness.”
- When: Around the 6th to 5th centuries BCE, during the time of Confucius.
- Where: Ancient China.
**Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words): **
Disenchanted by the moral decay and political upheaval he witnessed, Confucius sought to restore harmony and order by emphasizing a return to traditional values and moral uprightness.
One such value was “ren.” For Confucius and subsequent Confucian scholars, “ren” embodied the ideal of human goodness and moral excellence. While it encapsulates various virtues like compassion, kindness, and empathy, “ren” at its core is about living in harmony with others and fostering a sense of community and shared humanity.
However, understanding “ren” is not complete without considering other Confucian ideals, particularly “li” (rites or ritual propriety) and “yi” (righteousness). “Li” provides the structured, external framework of behavior, while “ren” is the inner moral disposition that should guide one’s actions. Together, they represent the interplay of inner virtue and its outward manifestation.
Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words):
Amidst ancient China’s upheavals, “ren” emerged as a beacon of moral virtue. Championed by Confucius, it promoted genuine benevolence over mere adherence to rules, aspiring to create a harmonious society. This idea redefined governance, social relationships, and personal ethics, embedding itself deeply within the Chinese cultural and moral framework.
Daodejing
Who, What, When, and Where:
- Who: Traditionally attributed to Laozi (or Lao Tzu).
- What: A foundational text of Daoism, often translated as “The Classic of the Way and its Virtue” or “The Book of the Way.”
- When: Historically debated, traditionally dated around the 6th century BCE, though it might have been compiled over a longer period.
- Where: Ancient China.
**Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words): **
The Daodejing emerged during an intellectually vibrant period in China, known as the “Hundred Schools of Thought” era. This was a time when philosophers, thinkers, and scholars passionately debated the nature of existence, governance, morality, and the universe. This period coincided with the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, specifically during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods—times of political unrest and fragmentation.
Amidst this backdrop, the Daodejing introduced a philosophy markedly different from the proactive and duty-bound teachings of Confucianism or the legalistic strategies prevalent at the time. Instead, the Daodejing emphasized wuwei (non-action or non-doing), suggesting that one should align with the natural flow or Dao (Way) of the universe, rather than imposing one’s will upon it.
**Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words): **
The Daodejing’s introduction of wuwei and alignment with the Dao offered a radical perspective in its era, challenging dominant political and personal strategies. Advocating harmony with the universe’s inherent order, it spawned Daoism, deeply influencing Chinese thought, culture, and spirituality for millennia.
Junzi
Who, What, When, and Where:
- Who: The term is closely associated with Confucius and his teachings.
- What: “Junzi” is translated as “gentleman” or “superior person.” It signifies an individual of noble character and moral rectitude.
- When: The term gained prominence during the 6th to 5th centuries BCE, around the time of Confucius.
- Where: Ancient China.
**Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words): **
The era of Confucius was marked by political fragmentation, moral decline, and the absence of a centralizing authority in the Zhou dynasty. The “Hundred Schools of Thought” blossomed, as various philosophers and thinkers proposed ways to navigate and address the societal chaos.
Amidst this intellectual and moral landscape, Confucius emerged, championing the idea of returning to traditional values and ethical virtues. He did not advocate for mere nostalgia but emphasized the cultivation of personal character and moral uprightness.
Central to Confucius’s teachings was the ideal of the “junzi.” Unlike the narrow definition of nobility based on bloodline or birthright, Confucius’s junzi was defined by his virtues and moral disposition. The junzi embodies qualities like righteousness (yi), propriety (li), and benevolence (ren). He is insightful, just, and operates not for personal gain but for the broader welfare of society.
**Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words): **
The “junzi” provided a transformative vision of nobility based on virtue, not birth. This ideal reshaped governance, education, and societal aspirations in ancient China. By championing moral integrity and righteousness, the junzi concept offered a path to societal harmony and effective leadership.
Wuwei
Who, What, When, and Where:
- Who: Associated predominantly with Daoism and the teachings of Laozi.
- What: “Wuwei” translates as “non-action” or “non-doing.” It’s the concept of taking no intentional or forced action but allowing things to unfold naturally.
- When: The term gained traction during the 6th to 5th centuries BCE, concurrent with Daoist thought.
- Where: Ancient China.
**Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words): **
The concept of wuwei emerged during the Eastern Zhou Dynasty—a period marked by political instability and a plethora of philosophical schools vying to offer solutions to the prevalent chaos. Confucianism emphasized ritual propriety and moral rectitude, while Legalism advocated for strict laws and governance. In this context, Daoism presented a markedly different perspective, with wuwei being a central tenet.
Wuwei is less about inactivity and more about aligned action. It implies action that doesn’t arise from personal desires or aims but flows naturally from the circumstances, harmonizing with the universe’s innate rhythms. This concept was intricately tied to the Daoist view of the universe, where the Dao (the Way) represented the fundamental nature of all existence.
By practicing wuwei, individuals, and especially rulers, were encouraged to step back and let things evolve, refraining from intervening or forcing outcomes. It advised rulers to govern with a light touch, allowing subjects to live naturally and without excessive interference.
**Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words): **
Wuwei offered a profound philosophical shift during its time, emphasizing aligned action and minimal interference. This Daoist principle influenced governance, promoting rulership that’s naturally harmonious. Its echoes were felt in arts, culture, and medicine, leaving an indelible mark on Chinese thought and practice.
Wang Mang
Who, What, When, and Where:
- Who: Wang Mang, a Chinese official and eventual usurper of the Han Dynasty.
- What: Established the short-lived Xin Dynasty.
- When: Wang Mang reigned from 9–23 CE.
- Where: China.
**Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words): **
Enter Wang Mang, a Confucian scholar and official, who was related to the royal family and served as a regent for the young Emperor Ping. Using his position, Wang Mang undertook a series of major reforms inspired by his interpretation of Confucian principles, seeking to restore the glory of ancient Zhou governance models. These reforms included land redistribution, where large estates were broken up and given to peasants, and the introduction of new currencies.
However, his reforms, though ideologically grounded, were not always practical. The abrupt changes caused economic upheavals and widespread resentment among the elite. This backdrop of dissatisfaction, coupled with natural calamities like the Yellow River’s flooding, created a chaotic environment.
In 9 CE, Wang Mang declared the end of the Western Han and established his Xin (“New”) Dynasty, citing a divine mandate to rule. His reign, though, was marked by constant rebellions, economic crises, and widespread discontent.
**Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words): **
Wang Mang’s reign highlighted the tension between Confucian ideals and pragmatic governance. His radical reforms, though ideologically driven, led to widespread chaos. His rise and fall underscored the perils of abrupt change and overreach, while the restoration of the Han Dynasty post his rule reflected the enduring legacy of the Han imperial tradition.
Delian League
Who, What, When, and Where:
- Who: The Delian League was an alliance of Greek city-states, with Athens as the dominant power.
- What: It was a confederation formed for mutual defense and protection against external threats, particularly the Persian Empire.
- When: The Delian League was established in 478 BCE.
- Where: The league was centered in the city of Delos, but its influence extended to various Greek city-states in the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean regions.
**Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words): **
The Delian League emerged in the aftermath of the Greco-Persian Wars, a series of conflicts between the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire in the early 5th century BCE. These wars, including the famous Battle of Marathon and the Persian invasions of Greece, had brought the Greek city-states together in a loose coalition under the leadership of Athens and Sparta. The Greeks ultimately repelled the Persian invasions, with the decisive Battle of Plataea in 479 BCE.
In the wake of these victories, the city-states recognized the need for a continued alliance to deter any future Persian threat. The Delian League was established as a defensive alliance, with members contributing troops or financial support to a common treasury. The treasury was initially located on the island of Delos, which gave the league its name.
However, over time, Athens, under the leadership of statesman Pericles, began to assert its dominance within the league. Athens gradually transformed the Delian League into an Athenian empire, using its naval power to exert control over member states and their resources.
The league’s treasury was moved to Athens, and contributions were increasingly paid in the form of money rather than troops. Athens used these funds to finance ambitious construction projects, such as the Parthenon, and to strengthen its military and naval forces. This shift in power dynamics led to growing tensions among league members.
The league’s transformation into an Athenian empire became a source of discontent among other city-states, particularly Sparta and its allies. This discontent eventually escalated into the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE), a protracted conflict between Athens and Sparta, leading to the downfall of the Delian League and the eventual decline of Athenian power.
**Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words): **
The Delian League initially united Greek city-states against the Persians, marking a pivotal moment in Greek history. However, its transformation into an Athenian empire led to power struggles and, ultimately, the Peloponnesian War, which reshaped the Greek world and contributed to the rise of Macedon and Alexander the Great.
Pericles
Who, What, When, and Where:
- Who: Pericles was an influential Athenian statesman and general during the Golden Age of Athens.
- What: He served as the de facto leader of Athens from 461 BCE until his death in 429 BCE and was known for his leadership, oratory skills, and promotion of Athenian democracy.
- When: Pericles’ prominence in Athenian politics and leadership spanned from the mid-5th century BCE to the early part of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE).
- Where: He held a prominent position in Athens, the capital of the Athenian Empire.
Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words):
Pericles played a pivotal role in shaping the direction of Athens during their golden age. He was a prominent figure within the democratic political system of Athens, which had evolved significantly since the reforms of Cleisthenes in the late 6th century BCE. Pericles himself came from a prominent Athenian family, but he championed the democratic ideals of the city-state.
One of Pericles’ most notable achievements was his leadership in promoting and strengthening Athenian democracy. He expanded the roles of citizens in decision-making processes, further consolidating the power of the assembly (ekklesia). He also increased the pay for jurors, making it possible for more citizens to participate in the justice system. These policies not only enhanced democracy but also helped to solidify his own political support.
During Pericles’ tenure, Athens experienced a cultural renaissance. The city became a hub for philosophers like Anaxagoras and Protagoras, and it was home to renowned playwrights like Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Pericles supported these intellectual and artistic endeavors, even commissioning the construction of the Parthenon, one of the most iconic temples of ancient Greece.
Pericles also expanded the Athenian Empire, which was essentially an alliance of city-states led by Athens. This expansion led to conflicts, particularly with the rival city-state of Sparta, and ultimately culminated in the Peloponnesian War, a protracted conflict that would significantly alter the course of Greek history.
**Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words): **
Pericles was a central figure in Athens’ Golden Age, known for championing democracy, supporting cultural achievements, and expanding the Athenian Empire. His leadership left an indelible mark on Athenian democracy and culture, though it also contributed to the conflicts that would reshape Greek history in the Peloponnesian War.
Olympic Games
**Who, What, When, and Where: **
Who: Ancient Greeks and athletes from various Greek city-states.
What: A series of athletic competitions held to honor the god Zeus.
When: Traditionally dated to 776 BC.
Where: Olympia, in ancient Greece.
Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words):
The Olympic Games began during the time of ancient Greece, an era when city-states (“poleis”) like Athens and Sparta held significant power. These city-states often had conflicts, alliances, and cultural exchanges. Religion played a crucial role in the life of Greeks, and the games were part of religious festivals. While the exact origins of the games are shrouded in myths and legends, they are thought to have existed in some form before their traditional start date in 776 BC. The Games were held every four years, a period known as an Olympiad, which became a unit of time measurement for the Greeks.
The broader socio-political landscape of the time saw numerous poleis vying for power and dominance, leading to wars and alliances. Despite their differences, the Games provided a rare period of peace; during the Olympics, a truce was proclaimed, and conflicts were paused, allowing athletes and spectators to travel safely to Olympia. The event became a significant means for the poleis to showcase their prowess and prominence without warfare, through athletic competition instead.
**Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words): **
The Olympic Games in ancient Greece intertwined sports, religion, and politics. They fostered unity among city-states, mirrored political and religious dynamics, and elevated victors as symbols of city prominence.
Peloponnesian War
**Who, What, When, and Where: **
Who: Primarily Athens and its Delian League allies versus Sparta and its Peloponnesian League allies.
What: A protracted and devastating war for dominance in ancient Greece.
When: 431-404 BC.
Where: Across various parts of Greece, but primarily in and around the Peloponnese.
Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words):
The Peloponnesian War came on the heels of the Greco-Persian Wars, during which the city-states united against the Persian Empire. Post this unity, Athens, benefiting from its naval supremacy, established the Delian League, originally intended to guard against Persian retaliation. However, Athens began to use it to extend its own influence, transforming the league into an Athenian Empire. Meanwhile, Sparta, the leading land power, formed the Peloponnesian League, largely in response to Athenian expansionism.
The 5th century BC was marked by an Athenian golden age under the leadership of Pericles. Athens saw a surge in art, philosophy, and architecture. However, tensions escalated as Athens and Sparta vied for control, with stark differences in their cultures, governance, and military strengths. While Athens was democratic, naval-based, and culturally vibrant, Sparta was an oligarchic, land-based military state. This period also witnessed the rise of sophists, questioning traditional beliefs and values, and the birth of history writing, with figures like Herodotus and Thucydides.
**Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words): **
The Peloponnesian War, beyond its massive toll, reshaped Greek politics and culture. It showcased the perils of hubris, influenced philosophical and historical writings, and shifted power dynamics, ultimately ushering in the Hellenistic era.
Stoics
**Who, What, When, and Where: **
Who: Philosophers following the teachings of Zeno of Citium.
What: Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy emphasizing the importance of virtue, wisdom, and the rational soul, suggesting that one should live in accordance with Nature and the Universe’s rational order.
When: Founded in the early 3rd century BC.
Where: Athens, Greece.
**Historical Context or Big Picture Background (Approximately 350 words): **
The rise of Stoicism occurred during the Hellenistic age, a period characterized by profound transformations in the ancient world. While Epicureanism advocated for the pursuit of pleasure to achieve tranquility and happiness, and Skepticism promoted doubt and suspension of judgment, Stoicism offered its own unique approach.
Stoicism posited that the universe was governed by a rational order, the Logos, and that humans, by nature, are rational beings. Thus, the Stoics believed that by understanding the universe’s natural order and living in harmony with it, individuals could attain true happiness and freedom. This involved accepting things one cannot change, recognizing the impermanence of material possessions and societal status, and focusing on cultivating inner virtues and wisdom.
Overall Significance for its time brief (Approximately 80 words):
In a transformative Hellenistic age, Stoicism provided a blueprint for inner peace, emphasizing virtue and rational harmony with the universe. Its influence permeated from personal realms to the corridors of Roman power, offering practical wisdom for both everyday challenges and governance.
