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experimental psychology chapter 4 and 5 > how to do research > Flashcards

how to do research Flashcards

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1
Q

what is relative frequency?

A

Frequency of an event or number of times event occurs

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2
Q

relative frequency

A

most commonly used for nominal scale measurement

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3
Q

how do you calculate for relative frequency

A

number of times behavior has occurred divided by total observations. expressed by proportion or percentage.

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4
Q

interobserver reliability

A

degree of 2 or more independent observers agree

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5
Q

what is the formula to calculate agreement between 2 observers?

A

times 2 observers agree divided by # of opportunities to agree times 100

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6
Q

researchers report reliability that exceeds what percentage?

A

85%

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7
Q

When data is measured through ordinal scale they use what?

A

Spearman Rank Order Correlation

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8
Q

When observational data is measured on either a ratio or interval scale they use what?

A

Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient

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9
Q

What is correlation Coefficient?

A

NUmerical measure of some type of correlation, meaning a statistical relationship between 2 variables. The variables may be 2 columns of a given data set of observation, often called a sample or 2 components of a random variable with a known distribution.. Direction and magnitude of predictive relationship.

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10
Q

What is the heart of techniques?

A

Identification and Selection

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11
Q

What is a biased sample?

A

Characteristics of sample are different from characteristics of population

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12
Q

what is population?

A

Set of all cases of interest

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13
Q

What is a sampling frame?

A

List of items or people forming a populations from which a sample is taken.

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14
Q

What is a element?

A

Each member of the population.

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15
Q

What is selection bias?

A

procedures used to select samples which result in overrepresentation of some segment of the population

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16
Q

What are the 2 approaches to selecting a survey sample?

A
  1. Probability Sampling-(selecting randomly)
  2. Non-probability sampling-subset of population to represent whole population or to inform about the processes that are meaningful beyond the particular cases. ( Individuals or sites studies)
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17
Q

What are the 3 steps to drawing a random survery?

A
  1. define your population of interest.
  2. determine your sampling frame.
    3 when a convenient list of management size is available a random sample can be taken to achieve a representative sample.
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18
Q

What is stratified random sampling

A

Sampling from a population which can be partiended into subpopulations.

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19
Q

When subpopulations vary what do researchers do?

A

researchers sample each subpopulation independently.

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20
Q

What are the 2 ways to draw the stratified random sampling?

A
  1. Draw equal sized from each subpopulation.

2. draw elements for samples on a proportional basis.

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21
Q

what is non-probability sampling?

A

It is the convenience of sampling individuals or the individuals willingness to participate in the survey, questionnaire etc….

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22
Q

What are the 4 survey methods?

A
  1. mail
  2. personal interviews
  3. telephone interviews
  4. internet surveys.
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23
Q

What are the 3 survey research designs?

A
  1. cross-sectional-1 or more samples drawn from population 1 at a time. Allows researchers to describe characteristics of population or differences. Correlation finding allows them to make predictions. It is the most used method.
  2. Successive independent sample- Different samples of people from populations. They do surveys over a long period of time. A problem that can arise is samples drawn are not representative of entire population.
  3. Longitudinal Design- Same people over long period of time. A problem with this method is It can not represent the original population from which the samples were originally drawn sometimes.
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24
Q

What is the primary research instrument used?

A

The questionnaire

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25
Q

What is demographic Variable

A

Describes characteristics of people surveyed. Examples” measure of race, ethnicity and age.

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26
Q

What is assessed in surveys?

A

THeir preferences and attitudes.

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27
Q

WHat are the 6 steps to prepare the questionnaire?

A
  1. Decide information to be sought
  2. decide how to administer the questionnaire.
  3. prepare a draft of the questionnaire
  4. re-examine and revise the draft.
  5. pretest the draft
  6. edit and specify procedures to be followed for the final draft.
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28
Q

what is a continuous dimension

A

an individual could fall at any point along dimension. Continuum can have various levels of characteristics

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29
Q

What is dichotomous?

A

Individuals does or does not possess characteristics. They do not have the specific characteristics they are looking for.

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30
Q

What is position preference?

A

consistent tendency to choose an option because of its location etc..

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31
Q

what is manifest content?

A

plain meaning of the words that actually appear on the page.

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32
Q

when a complete record of behavior can not be obtained, researchers seek to obtain a what?

A

representative sample of the behavior

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33
Q

The extent to which observations may be generalized (external validity) depends on what?

A

how the behavior is sampled

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34
Q

before researchers conduct an observing study they must decide what?

A

when and where the observing will take place

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35
Q

The behavior must be what?

A

sampled

36
Q

the ______ is used to _____ a larger population

A

sample, represent

37
Q

What type of finding can only be done observing the participants times, setting, and conditions similar to those in the study which observations were originally made.

A

generalized

38
Q

What is external validity

A

THe extent to which results of study can be generalized to different populations settings and conditions.

39
Q

What is validity

A

truthfulness

40
Q

WHat is time sampling

A

choosing time intervals for making observations either systematically or randomly.

41
Q

When researchers are interested in infrequent behaviors they choose what?

A

event sampling (nature disasters)

42
Q

Researchers use combo of _____&______ to identify representative samples.

A

time sampling & situation sampling

43
Q

What is time sampling

A

seek representative samples by choosing various time intervals for observing.

44
Q

What does EAR mean

A

ELectronic activated recorder/natural environment

45
Q

what is situation sampling?

A

increases external validity of observational findings.

46
Q

what is subject sampling?

A

It is used when the researcher cant observe everyone in the room at the same time.

47
Q

Observational methods

A
  1. Direct observation- observe w/o intervention or observe w/ intervention.
  2. If it is observe with intervention it can either be
    (a) participant observation or
    (b) structured observation or
    (c) field experiment.
  3. Indirect observation- unobtrusive (non-reactive)
    will use physical traces and/or archival records.
48
Q

what is participant observation?

A

observes behavior and participates actively in situation they are observing

49
Q

What happened in Rosenhan’s study

A

Completed in 1973, researchers disguised participants who sought admission to mental hospital saying they had schizophrenia. Got to leave in between 7-52 days told they were in remission.

50
Q

Clinical psychologist uses ____ to watch parent-child interactions.

A

structured observation

51
Q

structured observation is middle ground between what?

A

passive non-intervention of naturalistic observance and systematic control/manipulation of independent variables

52
Q

WHat is a field experiment?

A

manipulated 1 or more independent variables in naturalistic setting to determine the effect of behavior

53
Q

What is unobtrusive measures

A

researcher does not intervene and the individuals are not aware

54
Q

WHat are traces

A

physical evidence from use or non-use of items ex: cans in a recycle bin, pages highlighted in a book, wear and tear on a game controller

55
Q

WHat are running records

A

public, private documents produced constantly ex” records for sport teams, fb, twitter entries

56
Q

What are products?

A

creations, constructions, artifacts of behavior

ex: ancient rock paintings, MTV, harry potter figures

57
Q

What are records for specific episodes?

A

documents for specific events

ex: birth certificate, marriage certificate

58
Q

What is validity of physical traces?

A

considering possible sources of bias and by seeking converging evidence.
Ex; she could find husbands cook book bc it smells like garlic and has food stains on pages

59
Q

What are physical traces?

A

remnants, fragments products of past behavior

60
Q

examining of ______allows researchers to test hypothesis about behavior

A

products

61
Q

what are problems of archival records

A
  1. selective deposit- some info is selected to be deposited in archives but other info is not.
  2. selected survival- records are missing or incomplete.
  3. possible of spurious relationships- evidence falsely indicates that 2 or more variables are associated when they are not.
62
Q

What are natural treatments?

A

naturally occurring events that impact society or people

63
Q

What is comprehensive date keeping?

A

researchers seek this description. Narrative records of written descriptions of behavior such as audio and recordings.

64
Q

Researchers classify and organize data from ____records to test hypothesis and behavior

A

narrative

65
Q

___ provide a more or less faithful reproduction of behavior as it is originally occurred. This is done after observations are made

A

Narrative

66
Q

To create a narrative record researchers write descriptions of behavior or use audio and recordings. Once created observer can_____,____,_ to test their hypothesis

A

study, classify, and organize

67
Q

What is nominal scale

A

label, no numeric values. Is the frequency of a behavior

lowest value

68
Q

what is ordinal scale

A

order of values, non-numeric concepts, like mad, really mad, overly mad. Outcome of a race

69
Q

What is interval scale

A

we know both the order and exact differences. In Between think of temperatures or measurements 5cm to 20 cm. how far apart 2 events are on a given dimension.

70
Q

What is ratio scale

A

tells us everything and has an absolute zero

71
Q

WHen researchers decide to measure and quantify specific behavior they must decide what ____ of measurement to use

A

scale

72
Q

psychologist prefer to use what scale to measure behaviors?

A

Interval scale ( quantitative)

73
Q

researchers either use ___ or _____ data to analyze results

A

quantitative or qualitative

74
Q

When researchers use measurement scale they prefer data is

A

quantitative ( interval scale)

75
Q

What is an important step in analyzing narrative and archival records?

A

Data reduction

76
Q

Qualitive studies what setting?

A

naturalistic

77
Q

what are the 3 steps to analyze content data?

A
  1. identify a relevant source.
  2. sample sections from the source.
  3. code units of analysis.
78
Q

what is quantitive data analysis?

A

numerical data collected and transforms what’s collected or observed in to numerical data (length, mass, temperature, time)

79
Q

What is descriptive statistics?

A

summary that quantitatively describes features from a collection of information.

80
Q

What is relative frequency

A

most common to use for nominal scale/ To calculate this yo use the number of times a behavior occurs and it is tallied and divided by total observations. It is expressed by a proportion or perecentage.

81
Q

What is interobserver reliability?

A

degree of 2 or more independent observers agree

82
Q

what is the formula for interobserver reliability>

A

number of times 2 observers agree divided by number of opportunities to agree times 100

83
Q

researchers report reliability that exceeds what percentage

A

85%

84
Q

When data is measured through ordinal scale whey use what correlation?

A

spearman rank order correlation

85
Q

when observation data is measured on either a ratio or interval scale they use what?

A

pearson product moment correlation coefficient/(r)

86
Q

What is correlation coefficient?

A

quantitative index of direction and magnitude of predictive relationship

experimental psychology chapter 4 and 5 (2 decks)

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